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<H1>Developer's Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) for
PostgreSQL</H1>
<P>Last updated: Wed Sep 6 20:12:13 EDT 2006</P>
<P>Current maintainer: Bruce Momjian (<A href=
"mailto:bruce@momjian.us">bruce@momjian.us</A>)<BR>
</P>
<P>The most recent version of this document can be viewed at <A
href=
"http://www.postgresql.org/files/documentation/faqs/FAQ_DEV.html">http://www.postgresql.org/files/documentation/faqs/FAQ_DEV.html</A>.</P>
<HR>
<BR>
<H2>General Questions</H2>
<A href="#item1.1">1.1</A>) How do I get involved in PostgreSQL
development?<BR>
<A href="#item1.2">1.2</A>) What development environment is required
to develop code?<BR>
<A href="#item1.3">1.3</A>) What areas need work?<BR>
<A href="#item1.4">1.4</A>) What do I do after choosing an item to
work on?<BR>
<A href="#item1.5">1.5</A>) I've developed a patch, what next?<BR>
<A href="#item1.6">1.6</A>) Where can I learn more about the code?<BR>
<A href="#item1.7">1.7</A>) How do I download/update the current
source tree?<BR>
<A href="#item1.8">1.8</A>) How do I test my changes?<BR>
<A href="#item1.9">1.9</A>) What tools are available for
developers?<BR>
<A href="#item1.10">1.10</A>) What books are good for developers?<BR>
<A href="#item1.11">1.11</A>) What is configure all about?<BR>
<A href="#item1.12">1.12</A>) How do I add a new port?<BR>
<A href="#item1.13">1.13</A>) Why don't you use threads, raw
devices, async-I/O, &lt;insert your favorite wizz-bang feature
here&gt;?<BR>
<A href="#item1.14">1.14</A>) How are RPM's packaged?<BR>
<A href="#item1.15">1.15</A>) How are CVS branches handled?<BR>
<A href="#item1.16">1.16</A>) Where can I get a copy of the SQL
standards?<BR>
<A href="#item1.17">1.17</A>) Where can I get technical
assistance?<BR>
<A href="#item1.18">1.18</A>) How do I get involved in PostgreSQL web
site development?<BR>
<H2>Technical Questions</H2>
<A href="#item2.1">2.1</A>) How do I efficiently access information in
tables from the backend code?<BR>
<A href="#item2.2">2.2</A>) Why are table, column, type, function,
view names sometimes referenced as <I>Name</I> or <I>NameData,</I>
and sometimes as <I>char *?</I><BR>
<A href="#item2.3">2.3</A>) Why do we use <I>Node</I> and <I>List</I>
to make data structures?<BR>
<A href="#item2.4">2.4</A>) I just added a field to a structure. What
else should I do?<BR>
<A href="#item2.5">2.5</A>) Why do we use <I>palloc</I>() and
<I>pfree</I>() to allocate memory?<BR>
<A href="#item2.6">2.6</A>) What is ereport()?<BR>
<A href="#item2.7">2.7</A>) What is CommandCounterIncrement()?<BR>
<A href="#item2.8">2.8</A>) What debugging features are available?<BR>
<BR>
<HR>
<H2>General Questions</H2>
<H3 id="item1.1">1.1) How do I get involved in PostgreSQL
development?</H3>
<P>Download the code and have a look around. See <A href=
"#1.7">1.7</A>.</P>
<P>Subscribe to and read the <A href=
"http://archives.postgresql.org/pgsql-hackers">pgsql-hackers</A>
mailing list (often termed 'hackers'). This is where the major
contributors and core members of the project discuss
development.</P>
<H3 id="item1.2">1.2) What development environment is required
to develop code?</H3>
<P>PostgreSQL is developed mostly in the C programming language. It
also makes use of Yacc and Lex.</P>
<P>The source code is targeted at most of the popular Unix
platforms and the Windows environment (XP, Windows 2000, and
up).</P>
<P>Most developers make use of the open source development tool
chain. If you have contributed to open source software before, you
will probably be familiar with these tools. They include: GCC (<A
href="http://gcc.gnu.org">http://gcc.gnu.org</A>, GDB (<A href=
"http://www.gnu.org/software/gdb/gdb.html">www.gnu.org/software/gdb/gdb.html</A>),
autoconf (<A href=
"http://www.gnu.org/software/autoconf/">www.gnu.org/software/autoconf/</A>)
AND GNU make (<A href=
"http://www.gnu.org/software/make/make.html">www.gnu.org/software/make/make.html</A>.</P>
<P>Developers using this tool chain on Windows make use of MingW
(see <A href=
"http://www.mingw.org/">http://www.mingw.org/</A>).</P>
<P>Some developers use compilers from other software vendors with
mixed results.</P>
<P>Developers who are regularly rebuilding the source often pass
the --enable-depend flag to <I>configure</I>. The result is that
when you make a modification to a C header file, all files depend
upon that file are also rebuilt.</P>
<H3 id="item1.3">1.3) What areas need work?</H3>
Outstanding features are detailed in the TODO list. This is located
in <I>doc/TODO</I> in the source distribution or at <A href=
"http://www.postgresql.org/docs/faqs.TODO.html">
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/faqs.TODO.html</A>.
<P>You can learn more about these features by consulting the
archives, the SQL standards and the recommend texts (see <A href=
"#1.10">1.10</A>).</P>
<H3 id="item1.4">1.4) What do I do after choosing an item to
work on?</H3>
<P>Send an email to pgsql-hackers with a proposal for what you want
to do (assuming your contribution is not trivial). Working in
isolation is not advisable because others might be working on the same
TODO item, or you might have misunderstood the TODO item. In the
email, discuss both the internal implementation method you plan to
use, and any user-visible changes (new syntax, etc). For complex
patches, it is important to get community feeback on your proposal
before starting work. Failure to do so might mean your patch is
rejected.</P>
<P>A web site is maintained for patches awaiting review,
<a href="http://momjian.postgresql.org/cgi-bin/pgpatches">
http://momjian.postgresql.org/cgi-bin/pgpatches</a>, and
those that are being kept for the next release,
<a href="http://momjian.postgresql.org/cgi-bin/pgpatches_hold">
http://momjian.postgresql.org/cgi-bin/pgpatches2</a>.</P>
<H3 id="item1.5">1.5) I've developed a patch, what next?</H3>
<P>You will need to submit the patch to pgsql-patches@postgresql.org. It
will be reviewed by other contributors to the project and will be
either accepted or sent back for further work. To help ensure your patch
is reviewed and committed in a timely fashion, please try to make sure your
submission conforms to the following guidelines:
<ol>
<li>Ensure that your patch is generated against the most recent version
of the code, which for developers is CVS HEAD. For more on branches in
PostgreSQL, see <a href="#1.15">1.15</a>.</li>
<li>Try to make your patch as readable as possible by following the
project's code-layout conventions. This makes it easier for the
reviewer, and there's no point in trying to layout things
differently than pgindent. Also avoid unnecessary whitespace
changes because they just distract the reviewer, and formatting
changes will be removed by the next run of pgindent.</li>
<li>The patch should be generated in contextual diff format (<i>diff
-c</i> and should be applicable from the root directory. If you are
unfamiliar with this, you might find the script
<I>src/tools/make_diff/difforig</I> useful. (Unified diffs are only
preferable if the file changes are single-line changes and do not
rely on surrounding lines.)</li>
<li>PostgreSQL is licensed under a BSD license, so any submissions must
conform to the BSD license to be included. If you use code that is
available under some other license that is BSD compatible (eg. public
domain) please note that code in your email submission</li>
<li>Confirm that your changes can pass the regression tests. If your
changes are port specific, please list the ports you have tested it
on.</li>
<li>Provide an implementation overview, preferably in code comments.
Following the surrounding code commenting style is usually a good
approach.</li>
<li>New feature patches should also be accompanied by documentation
patches. If you need help checking the SQL standard, see <a href=
"#1.16">1.16</a>.</li>
<li>If you are adding a new feature, confirm that it has been tested
thoroughly. Try to test the feature in all conceivable
scenarios.</li>
<li>If it is a performance patch, please provide confirming test
results to show the benefit of your patch. It is OK to post patches
without this information, though the patch will not be applied until
somebody has tested the patch and found a significant performance
improvement.</li>
</ol>
<p>Even if you pass all of the above, the patch might still be
rejected for other reasons. Please be prepared to listen to comments
and make modifications.</p>
<p>You will be notified via email when the patch is applied, and
your name will appear in the next version of the release notes.</p>
<H3 id="item1.6">1.6) Where can I learn more about the
code?</H3>
<P>Other than documentation in the source tree itself, you can find
some papers/presentations discussing the code at <A href=
"http://www.postgresql.org/developer">
http://www.postgresql.org/developer</A>. An excellent presentation
is at <a href=
"http://neilconway.org/talks/hacking/">http://neilconway.org/talks/hacking/</a></P>
<H3 id="item1.7">1.7) How do I download/update the current
source tree?</H3>
<P>There are several ways to obtain the source tree. Occasional
developers can just get the most recent source tree snapshot from
<A href=
"ftp://ftp.postgresql.org">ftp://ftp.postgresql.org</A>.</P>
<P>Regular developers might want to take advantage of anonymous
access to our source code management system. The source tree is
currently hosted in CVS. For details of how to obtain the source
from CVS see <A href=
"http://developer.postgresql.org/docs/postgres/cvs.html">
http://developer.postgresql.org/docs/postgres/cvs.html</A>.</P>
<H3 id="item1.8">1.8) How do I test my changes?</H3>
<P><B>Basic system testing</B></P>
<P>The easiest way to test your code is to ensure that it builds
against the latest version of the code and that it does not generate
compiler warnings.</P>
<P>It is worth advised that you pass --enable-cassert to
<I>configure</I>. This will turn on assertions with in the source
which will often show us bugs because they cause data corruption of
segmentation violations. This generally makes debugging much
easier.</P>
<P>Then, perform run time testing via psql.</P>
<P><B>Regression test suite</B></P>
<P>The next step is to test your changes against the existing
regression test suite. To do this, issue "make check" in the root
directory of the source tree. If any tests failure,
investigate.</P>
<P>If you've deliberately changed existing behavior, this change
might cause a regression test failure but not any actual regression.
If so, you should also patch the regression test suite.</P>
<P><B>Other run time testing</B></P>
<P>Some developers make use of tools such as valgrind (<A href=
"http://valgrind.kde.org">http://valgrind.kde.org</A>) for memory
testing, gprof (which comes with the GNU binutils suite) and
oprofile (<A href=
"http://oprofile.sourceforge.net/">http://oprofile.sourceforge.net/</A>)
for profiling and other related tools.</P>
<P><B>What about unit testing, static analysis, model
checking...?</B></P>
<P>There have been a number of discussions about other testing
frameworks and some developers are exploring these ideas.</P>
<P>Keep in mind the <I>Makefiles</I> do not have the proper
dependencies for include files. You have to do a <I>make clean</I>
and then another <I>make</I>. If you are using <SMALL>GCC</SMALL>
you can use the <I>--enable-depend</I> option of <I>configure</I>
to have the compiler compute the dependencies automatically.</P>
<H3 id="item1.9">1.9) What tools are available for
developers?</H3>
<P>First, all the files in the <I>src/tools</I> directory are
designed for developers.</P>
<PRE>
RELEASE_CHANGES changes we have to make for each release
backend description/flowchart of the backend directories
ccsym find standard defines made by your compiler
copyright fixes copyright notices
entab converts tabs to spaces, used by pgindent
find_static finds functions that could be made static
find_typedef finds typedefs in the source code
find_badmacros finds macros that use braces incorrectly
fsync a script to provide information about the cost of cache
syncing system calls
make_ctags make vi 'tags' file in each directory
make_diff make *.orig and diffs of source
make_etags make emacs 'etags' files
make_keywords make comparison of our keywords and SQL'92
make_mkid make mkid ID files
pgcvslog used to generate a list of changes for each release
pginclude scripts for adding/removing include files
pgindent indents source files
pgtest a semi-automated build system
thread a thread testing script
</PRE>
<P>In <I>src/include/catalog</I>:</P>
<PRE>
unused_oids a script which generates unused OIDs for use in system
catalogs
duplicate_oids finds duplicate OIDs in system catalog definitions
</PRE>
If you point your browser at the <I>tools/backend/index.html</I>
file, you will see few paragraphs describing the data flow, the
backend components in a flow chart, and a description of the shared
memory area. You can click on any flowchart box to see a
description. If you then click on the directory name, you will be
taken to the source directory, to browse the actual source code
behind it. We also have several README files in some source
directories to describe the function of the module. The browser
will display these when you enter the directory also. The
<I>tools/backend</I> directory is also contained on our web page
under the title <I>How PostgreSQL Processes a Query.</I>
<P>Second, you really should have an editor that can handle tags,
so you can tag a function call to see the function definition, and
then tag inside that function to see an even lower-level function,
and then back out twice to return to the original function. Most
editors support this via <I>tags</I> or <I>etags</I> files.</P>
<P>Third, you need to get <I>id-utils</I> from <A href=
"ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/id-utils/">ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/id-utils/</A></P>
<P>By running <I>tools/make_mkid</I>, an archive of source symbols
can be created that can be rapidly queried.</P>
<P>Some developers make use of cscope, which can be found at <A
href="http://cscope.sf.net">http://cscope.sf.net/</A>. Others use
glimpse, which can be found at <A href=
"http://webglimpse.net/">http://webglimpse.net/</A>.</P>
<P><I>tools/make_diff</I> has tools to create patch diff files that
can be applied to the distribution. This produces context diffs,
which is our preferred format.</P>
<P>Our standard format <I>BSD</I> style, with each level of code indented
one tab, where each tab is four spaces. You will need to set your editor
or file viewer to display tabs as four spaces:<BR>
</P>
<PRE>
vi in ~/.exrc:
set tabstop=4
set sw=4
more:
more -x4
less:
less -x4
</PRE>
<P>The <I>tools/editors</I> directory of the latest sources contains sample
settings that can be used with the <I>emacs</I>, <I>xemacs</I> and
<I>vim</I> editors, that assist in keeping to PostgreSQL coding standards.
</P>
<P><I>pgindent</I> will the format code by specifying flags to your
operating system's utility <I>indent.</I> This <A href=
"http://ezine.daemonnews.org/200112/single_coding_style.html">article</A>
describes the value of a consistent coding style.</P>
<P><I>pgindent</I> is run on all source files just before each beta
test period. It auto-formats all source files to make them
consistent. Comment blocks that need specific line breaks should be
formatted as <I>block comments,</I> where the comment starts as
<CODE>/*------</CODE>. These comments will not be reformatted in
any way.</P>
<P><I>pginclude</I> contains scripts used to add needed
<CODE>#include</CODE>'s to include files, and removed unneeded
<CODE>#include</CODE>'s.</P>
<P>When adding system types, you will need to assign oids to them.
There is also a script called <I>unused_oids</I> in
<I>pgsql/src/include/catalog</I> that shows the unused oids.</P>
<H3 id="item1.10">1.10) What books are good for
developers?</H3>
<P>I have four good books, <I>An Introduction to Database
Systems,</I> by C.J. Date, Addison, Wesley, <I>A Guide to the SQL
Standard,</I> by C.J. Date, et. al, Addison, Wesley,
<I>Fundamentals of Database Systems,</I> by Elmasri and Navathe,
and <I>Transaction Processing,</I> by Jim Gray, Morgan,
Kaufmann</P>
<P>There is also a database performance site, with a handbook
on-line written by Jim Gray at <A href=
"http://www.benchmarkresources.com">http://www.benchmarkresources.com.</A>.</P>
<H3 id="item1.11">1.11) What is configure all about?</H3>
<P>The files <I>configure</I> and <I>configure.in</I> are part of
the GNU <I>autoconf</I> package. Configure allows us to test for
various capabilities of the OS, and to set variables that can then
be tested in C programs and Makefiles. Autoconf is installed on the
PostgreSQL main server. To add options to configure, edit
<I>configure.in,</I> and then run <I>autoconf</I> to generate
<I>configure.</I></P>
<P>When <I>configure</I> is run by the user, it tests various OS
capabilities, stores those in <I>config.status</I> and
<I>config.cache,</I> and modifies a list of <I>*.in</I> files. For
example, if there exists a <I>Makefile.in,</I> configure generates
a <I>Makefile</I> that contains substitutions for all @var@
parameters found by configure.</P>
<P>When you need to edit files, make sure you don't waste time
modifying files generated by <I>configure.</I> Edit the <I>*.in</I>
file, and re-run <I>configure</I> to recreate the needed file. If
you run <I>make distclean</I> from the top-level source directory,
all files derived by configure are removed, so you see only the
file contained in the source distribution.</P>
<H3 id="item1.12">1.12) How do I add a new port?</H3>
<P>There are a variety of places that need to be modified to add a
new port. First, start in the <I>src/template</I> directory. Add an
appropriate entry for your OS. Also, use <I>src/config.guess</I> to
add your OS to <I>src/template/.similar.</I> You shouldn't match
the OS version exactly. The <I>configure</I> test will look for an
exact OS version number, and if not found, find a match without
version number. Edit <I>src/configure.in</I> to add your new OS.
(See configure item above.) You will need to run autoconf, or patch
<I>src/configure</I> too.</P>
<P>Then, check <I>src/include/port</I> and add your new OS file,
with appropriate values. Hopefully, there is already locking code
in <I>src/include/storage/s_lock.h</I> for your CPU. There is also
a <I>src/makefiles</I> directory for port-specific Makefile
handling. There is a <I>backend/port</I> directory if you need
special files for your OS.</P>
<H3 id="item1.13">1.13) Why don't you use threads, raw
devices, async-I/O, &lt;insert your favorite wizz-bang feature
here&gt;?</H3>
<P>There is always a temptation to use the newest operating system
features as soon as they arrive. We resist that temptation.</P>
<P>First, we support 15+ operating systems, so any new feature has
to be well established before we will consider it. Second, most new
<I>wizz-bang</I> features don't provide <I>dramatic</I>
improvements. Third, they usually have some downside, such as
decreased reliability or additional code required. Therefore, we
don't rush to use new features but rather wait for the feature to
be established, then ask for testing to show that a measurable
improvement is possible.</P>
<P>As an example, threads are not currently used in the backend
code because:</P>
<UL>
<LI>Historically, threads were unsupported and buggy.</LI>
<LI>An error in one backend can corrupt other backends.</LI>
<LI>Speed improvements using threads are small compared to the
remaining backend startup time.</LI>
<LI>The backend code would be more complex.</LI>
</UL>
<P>So, we are not ignorant of new features. It is just that we are
cautious about their adoption. The TODO list often contains links
to discussions showing our reasoning in these areas.</P>
<H3 id="item1.14">1.14) How are RPMs packaged?</H3>
<P>This was written by Lamar Owen:</P>
<P>2001-05-03</P>
<P>As to how the RPMs are built -- to answer that question sanely
requires me to know how much experience you have with the whole RPM
paradigm. 'How is the RPM built?' is a multifaceted question. The
obvious simple answer is that I maintain:</P>
<OL>
<LI>A set of patches to make certain portions of the source tree
'behave' in the different environment of the RPMset;</LI>
<LI>The initscript;</LI>
<LI>Any other ancillary scripts and files;</LI>
<LI>A README.rpm-dist document that tries to adequately document
both the differences between the RPM build and the WHY of the
differences, as well as useful RPM environment operations (like,
using syslog, upgrading, getting postmaster to start at OS boot,
etc);</LI>
<LI>The spec file that throws it all together. This is not a
trivial undertaking in a package of this size.</LI>
</OL>
<P>I then download and build on as many different canonical
distributions as I can -- currently I am able to build on Red Hat
6.2, 7.0, and 7.1 on my personal hardware. Occasionally I receive
opportunity from certain commercial enterprises such as Great
Bridge and PostgreSQL, Inc. to build on other distributions.</P>
<P>I test the build by installing the resulting packages and
running the regression tests. Once the build passes these tests, I
upload to the postgresql.org ftp server and make a release
announcement. I am also responsible for maintaining the RPM
download area on the ftp site.</P>
<P>You'll notice I said 'canonical' distributions above. That
simply means that the machine is as stock 'out of the box' as
practical -- that is, everything (except select few programs) on
these boxen are installed by RPM; only official Red Hat released
RPMs are used (except in unusual circumstances involving software
that will not alter the build -- for example, installing a newer
non-RedHat version of the Dia diagramming package is OK --
installing Python 2.1 on the box that has Python 1.5.2 installed is
not, as that alters the PostgreSQL build). The RPM as uploaded is
built to as close to out-of-the-box pristine as is possible. Only
the standard released 'official to that release' compiler is used
-- and only the standard official kernel is used as well.</P>
<P>For a time I built on Mandrake for RedHat consumption -- no
more. Nonstandard RPM building systems are worse than useless.
Which is not to say that Mandrake is useless! By no means is
Mandrake useless -- unless you are building Red Hat RPMs -- and Red
Hat is useless if you're trying to build Mandrake or SuSE RPMs, for
that matter. But I would be foolish to use 'Lamar Owen's Super
Special RPM Blend Distro 0.1.2' to build for public consumption!
:-)</P>
<P>I _do_ attempt to make the _source_ RPM compatible with as many
distributions as possible -- however, since I have limited
resources (as a volunteer RPM maintainer) I am limited as to the
amount of testing said build will get on other distributions,
architectures, or systems.</P>
<P>And, while I understand people's desire to immediately upgrade
to the newest version, realize that I do this as a side interest --
I have a regular, full-time job as a broadcast
engineer/webmaster/sysadmin/Technical Director which occasionally
prevents me from making timely RPM releases. This happened during
the early part of the 7.1 beta cycle -- but I believe I was pretty
much on the ball for the Release Candidates and the final
release.</P>
<P>I am working towards a more open RPM distribution -- I would
dearly love to more fully document the process and put everything
into CVS -- once I figure out how I want to represent things such
as the spec file in a CVS form. It makes no sense to maintain a
changelog, for instance, in the spec file in CVS when CVS does a
better job of changelogs -- I will need to write a tool to generate
a real spec file from a CVS spec-source file that would add version
numbers, changelog entries, etc to the result before building the
RPM. IOW, I need to rethink the process -- and then go through the
motions of putting my long RPM history into CVS one version at a
time so that version history information isn't lost.</P>
<P>As to why all these files aren't part of the source tree, well,
unless there was a large cry for it to happen, I don't believe it
should. PostgreSQL is very platform-agnostic -- and I like that.
Including the RPM stuff as part of the Official Tarball (TM) would,
IMHO, slant that agnostic stance in a negative way. But maybe I'm
too sensitive to that. I'm not opposed to doing that if that is the
consensus of the core group -- and that would be a sneaky way to
get the stuff into CVS :-). But if the core group isn't thrilled
with the idea (and my instinct says they're not likely to be), I am
opposed to the idea -- not to keep the stuff to myself, but to not
hinder the platform-neutral stance. IMHO, of course.</P>
<P>Of course, there are many projects that DO include all the files
necessary to build RPMs from their Official Tarball (TM).</P>
<H3 id="item1.15">1.15) How are CVS branches managed?</H3>
<P>This was written by Tom Lane:</P>
<P>2001-05-07</P>
<P>If you just do basic "cvs checkout", "cvs update", "cvs commit",
then you'll always be dealing with the HEAD version of the files in
CVS. That's what you want for development, but if you need to patch
past stable releases then you have to be able to access and update
the "branch" portions of our CVS repository. We normally fork off a
branch for a stable release just before starting the development
cycle for the next release.</P>
<P>The first thing you have to know is the branch name for the
branch you are interested in getting at. To do this, look at some
long-lived file, say the top-level HISTORY file, with "cvs status
-v" to see what the branch names are. (Thanks to Ian Lance Taylor
for pointing out that this is the easiest way to do it.) Typical
branch names are:</P>
<PRE>
REL7_1_STABLE
REL7_0_PATCHES
REL6_5_PATCHES
</PRE>
<P>OK, so how do you do work on a branch? By far the best way is to
create a separate checkout tree for the branch and do your work in
that. Not only is that the easiest way to deal with CVS, but you
really need to have the whole past tree available anyway to test
your work. (And you *better* test your work. Never forget that
dot-releases tend to go out with very little beta testing --- so
whenever you commit an update to a stable branch, you'd better be
doubly sure that it's correct.)</P>
<P>Normally, to checkout the head branch, you just cd to the place
you want to contain the toplevel "pgsql" directory and say</P>
<PRE>
cvs ... checkout pgsql
</PRE>
<P>To get a past branch, you cd to wherever you want it and
say</P>
<PRE>
cvs ... checkout -r BRANCHNAME pgsql
</PRE>
<P>For example, just a couple days ago I did</P>
<PRE>
mkdir ~postgres/REL7_1
cd ~postgres/REL7_1
cvs ... checkout -r REL7_1_STABLE pgsql
</PRE>
<P>and now I have a maintenance copy of 7.1.*.</P>
<P>When you've done a checkout in this way, the branch name is
"sticky": CVS automatically knows that this directory tree is for
the branch, and whenever you do "cvs update" or "cvs commit" in
this tree, you'll fetch or store the latest version in the branch,
not the head version. Easy as can be.</P>
<P>So, if you have a patch that needs to apply to both the head and
a recent stable branch, you have to make the edits and do the
commit twice, once in your development tree and once in your stable
branch tree. This is kind of a pain, which is why we don't normally
fork the tree right away after a major release --- we wait for a
dot-release or two, so that we won't have to double-patch the first
wave of fixes.</P>
<H3 id="item1.16">1.16) Where can I get a copy of the SQL
standards?</H3>
<P>There are three versions of the SQL standard: SQL-92, SQL:1999,
and SQL:2003. They are endorsed by ANSI and ISO. Draft versions can
be downloaded from:</P>
<UL>
<LI>SQL-92 <A href=
"http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt">http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql/sql1992.txt</A></LI>
<LI>SQL:1999 <A href=
"http://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/dbms/Data/Papers-Other/SQL1999/ansi-iso-9075-2-1999.pdf">
http://www.cse.iitb.ac.in/dbms/Data/Papers-Other/SQL1999/ansi-iso-9075-2-1999.pdf</A></LI>
<LI>SQL:2003 <A href=
"http://www.wiscorp.com/sql_2003_standard.zip">http://www.wiscorp.com/sql_2003_standard.zip</A></LI>
</UL>
<P>Some SQL standards web pages are:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A href=
"http://troels.arvin.dk/db/rdbms/links/#standards">http://troels.arvin.dk/db/rdbms/links/#standards</A></LI>
<LI><A href=
"http://www.wiscorp.com/SQLStandards.html">http://www.wiscorp.com/SQLStandards.html</A></LI>
<LI><A href=
"http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql.html#syntax">http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql.html#syntax</A>
(SQL-92)</LI>
<LI><A href=
"http://dbs.uni-leipzig.de/en/lokal/standards.pdf">http://dbs.uni-leipzig.de/en/lokal/standards.pdf</A>
(paper)</LI>
</UL>
<H3 id="item1.17">1.17) Where can I get technical
assistance?</H3>
<P>Many technical questions held by those new to the code have been
answered on the pgsql-hackers mailing list - the archives of which
can be found at <A href=
"http://archives.postgresql.org/pgsql-hackers/">http://archives.postgresql.org/pgsql-hackers/</A>.</P>
<P>If you cannot find discussion or your particular question, feel
free to put it to the list.</P>
<P>Major contributors also answer technical questions, including
questions about development of new features, on IRC at
irc.freenode.net in the #postgresql channel.</P>
<H3 id="item1.18">1.18) How do I get involved in PostgreSQL
web site development?</H3>
<P>PostgreSQL website development is discussed on the
pgsql-www@postgresql.org mailing list. The is a project page where
the source code is available at <A href=
"http://gborg.postgresql.org/project/pgweb/projdisplay.php">http://gborg.postgresql.org/project/pgweb/projdisplay.php</A>
, the code for the next version of the website is under the
"portal" module. You will also find code for the "techdocs"
website if you would like to contribute to that. A temporary todo
list for current website development issues is available at <A
href=
"http://xzilla.postgresql.org/todo">http://xzilla.postgresql.org/todo</A></P>
<H2>Technical Questions</H2>
<H3 id="item2.1">2.1) How do I efficiently access information
in tables from the backend code?</H3>
<P>You first need to find the tuples(rows) you are interested in.
There are two ways. First, <I>SearchSysCache()</I> and related
functions allow you to query the system catalogs. This is the
preferred way to access system tables, because the first call to
the cache loads the needed rows, and future requests can return the
results without accessing the base table. The caches use system
table indexes to look up tuples. A list of available caches is
located in <I>src/backend/utils/cache/syscache.c.</I>
<I>src/backend/utils/cache/lsyscache.c</I> contains many
column-specific cache lookup functions.</P>
<P>The rows returned are cache-owned versions of the heap rows.
Therefore, you must not modify or delete the tuple returned by
<I>SearchSysCache()</I>. What you <I>should</I> do is release it
with <I>ReleaseSysCache()</I> when you are done using it; this
informs the cache that it can discard that tuple if necessary. If
you neglect to call <I>ReleaseSysCache()</I>, then the cache entry
will remain locked in the cache until end of transaction, which is
tolerable but not very desirable.</P>
<P>If you can't use the system cache, you will need to retrieve the
data directly from the heap table, using the buffer cache that is
shared by all backends. The backend automatically takes care of
loading the rows into the buffer cache.</P>
<P>Open the table with <I>heap_open().</I> You can then start a
table scan with <I>heap_beginscan(),</I> then use
<I>heap_getnext()</I> and continue as long as
<I>HeapTupleIsValid()</I> returns true. Then do a
<I>heap_endscan().</I> <I>Keys</I> can be assigned to the
<I>scan.</I> No indexes are used, so all rows are going to be
compared to the keys, and only the valid rows returned.</P>
<P>You can also use <I>heap_fetch()</I> to fetch rows by block
number/offset. While scans automatically lock/unlock rows from the
buffer cache, with <I>heap_fetch(),</I> you must pass a
<I>Buffer</I> pointer, and <I>ReleaseBuffer()</I> it when
completed.</P>
<P>Once you have the row, you can get data that is common to all
tuples, like <I>t_self</I> and <I>t_oid,</I> by merely accessing
the <I>HeapTuple</I> structure entries. If you need a
table-specific column, you should take the HeapTuple pointer, and
use the <I>GETSTRUCT()</I> macro to access the table-specific start
of the tuple. You then cast the pointer as a <I>Form_pg_proc</I>
pointer if you are accessing the pg_proc table, or
<I>Form_pg_type</I> if you are accessing pg_type. You can then
access the columns by using a structure pointer:</P>
<PRE>
<CODE>((Form_pg_class) GETSTRUCT(tuple))-&gt;relnatts
</CODE>
</PRE>
You must not directly change <I>live</I> tuples in this way. The
best way is to use <I>heap_modifytuple()</I> and pass it your
original tuple, and the values you want changed. It returns a
palloc'ed tuple, which you pass to <I>heap_replace().</I> You can
delete tuples by passing the tuple's <I>t_self</I> to
<I>heap_destroy().</I> You use <I>t_self</I> for
<I>heap_update()</I> too. Remember, tuples can be either system
cache copies, which might go away after you call
<I>ReleaseSysCache()</I>, or read directly from disk buffers, which
go away when you <I>heap_getnext()</I>, <I>heap_endscan</I>, or
<I>ReleaseBuffer()</I>, in the <I>heap_fetch()</I> case. Or it may
be a palloc'ed tuple, that you must <I>pfree()</I> when finished.
<H3 id="item2.2">2.2) Why are table, column, type, function,
view names sometimes referenced as <I>Name</I> or <I>NameData,</I>
and sometimes as <I>char *?</I></H3>
<P>Table, column, type, function, and view names are stored in
system tables in columns of type <I>Name.</I> Name is a
fixed-length, null-terminated type of <I>NAMEDATALEN</I> bytes.
(The default value for NAMEDATALEN is 64 bytes.)</P>
<PRE>
<CODE>typedef struct nameData
{
char data[NAMEDATALEN];
} NameData;
typedef NameData *Name;
</CODE>
</PRE>
Table, column, type, function, and view names that come into the
backend via user queries are stored as variable-length,
null-terminated character strings.
<P>Many functions are called with both types of names, ie.
<I>heap_open().</I> Because the Name type is null-terminated, it is
safe to pass it to a function expecting a char *. Because there are
many cases where on-disk names(Name) are compared to user-supplied
names(char *), there are many cases where Name and char * are used
interchangeably.</P>
<H3 id="item2.3">2.3) Why do we use <I>Node</I> and
<I>List</I> to make data structures?</H3>
<P>We do this because this allows a consistent way to pass data
inside the backend in a flexible way. Every node has a
<I>NodeTag</I> which specifies what type of data is inside the
Node. <I>Lists</I> are groups of <I>Nodes chained together as a
forward-linked list.</I></P>
<P>Here are some of the <I>List</I> manipulation commands:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<DL>
<DT>lfirst(i), lfirst_int(i), lfirst_oid(i)</DT>
<DD>return the data (a point, integer and OID respectively) at
list element <I>i.</I></DD>
<DT>lnext(i)</DT>
<DD>return the next list element after <I>i.</I></DD>
<DT>foreach(i, list)</DT>
<DD>
loop through <I>list,</I> assigning each list element to
<I>i.</I> It is important to note that <I>i</I> is a List *,
not the data in the <I>List</I> element. You need to use
<I>lfirst(i)</I> to get at the data. Here is a typical code
snippet that loops through a List containing <I>Var *'s</I>
and processes each one:
<PRE>
<CODE> List *list;
ListCell *i;
foreach(i, list)
{
Var *var = lfirst(i);
/* process var here */
}
</CODE>
</PRE>
</DD>
<DT>lcons(node, list)</DT>
<DD>add <I>node</I> to the front of <I>list,</I> or create a
new list with <I>node</I> if <I>list</I> is <I>NIL.</I></DD>
<DT>lappend(list, node)</DT>
<DD>add <I>node</I> to the end of <I>list.</I> This is more
expensive that lcons.</DD>
<DT>nconc(list1, list2)</DT>
<DD>Concat <I>list2</I> on to the end of <I>list1.</I></DD>
<DT>length(list)</DT>
<DD>return the length of the <I>list.</I></DD>
<DT>nth(i, list)</DT>
<DD>return the <I>i</I>'th element in <I>list.</I></DD>
<DT>lconsi, ...</DT>
<DD>There are integer versions of these: <I>lconsi,
lappendi</I>, etc. Also versions for OID lists: <I>lconso,
lappendo</I>, etc.</DD>
</DL>
</BLOCKQUOTE>
You can print nodes easily inside <I>gdb.</I> First, to disable
output truncation when you use the gdb <I>print</I> command:
<PRE>
<CODE>(gdb) set print elements 0
</CODE>
</PRE>
Instead of printing values in gdb format, you can use the next two
commands to print out List, Node, and structure contents in a
verbose format that is easier to understand. List's are unrolled
into nodes, and nodes are printed in detail. The first prints in a
short format, and the second in a long format:
<PRE>
<CODE>(gdb) call print(any_pointer)
(gdb) call pprint(any_pointer)
</CODE>
</PRE>
The output appears in the postmaster log file, or on your screen if
you are running a backend directly without a postmaster.
<H3 id="item2.4">2.4) I just added a field to a structure.
What else should I do?</H3>
<P>The structures passing around from the parser, rewrite,
optimizer, and executor require quite a bit of support. Most
structures have support routines in <I>src/backend/nodes</I> used
to create, copy, read, and output those structures (in particular,
the files <I>copyfuncs.c</I> and <I>equalfuncs.c</I>. Make sure you
add support for your new field to these files. Find any other
places the structure might need code for your new field. <I>mkid</I>
is helpful with this (see <A href="#item1.9">1.9</A>).</P>
<H3 id="item2.5">2.5) Why do we use <I>palloc</I>() and
<I>pfree</I>() to allocate memory?</H3>
<P><I>palloc()</I> and <I>pfree()</I> are used in place of malloc()
and free() because we find it easier to automatically free all
memory allocated when a query completes. This assures us that all
memory that was allocated gets freed even if we have lost track of
where we allocated it. There are special non-query contexts that
memory can be allocated in. These affect when the allocated memory
is freed by the backend.</P>
<H3 id="item2.6">2.6) What is ereport()?</H3>
<P><I>ereport()</I> is used to send messages to the front-end, and
optionally terminate the current query being processed. The first
parameter is an ereport level of <I>DEBUG</I> (levels 1-5),
<I>LOG,</I> <I>INFO,</I> <I>NOTICE,</I> <I>ERROR,</I> <I>FATAL,</I>
or <I>PANIC.</I> <I>NOTICE</I> prints on the user's terminal and
the postmaster logs. <I>INFO</I> prints only to the user's terminal
and <I>LOG</I> prints only to the server logs. (These can be
changed from <I>postgresql.conf.</I>) <I>ERROR</I> prints in both
places, and terminates the current query, never returning from the
call. <I>FATAL</I> terminates the backend process. The remaining
parameters of <I>ereport</I> are a <I>printf</I>-style set of
parameters to print.</P>
<P><I>ereport(ERROR)</I> frees most memory and open file
descriptors so you don't need to clean these up before the
call.</P>
<H3 id="item2.7">2.7) What is CommandCounterIncrement()?</H3>
<P>Normally, transactions can not see the rows they modify. This
allows <CODE>UPDATE foo SET x = x + 1</CODE> to work correctly.</P>
<P>However, there are cases where a transactions needs to see rows
affected in previous parts of the transaction. This is accomplished
using a Command Counter. Incrementing the counter allows
transactions to be broken into pieces so each piece can see rows
modified by previous pieces. <I>CommandCounterIncrement()</I>
increments the Command Counter, creating a new part of the
transaction.</P>
<H3 id="item2.8">2.8) What debugging features are
available?</H3>
<P>First, try running <I>configure</I> with the --enable-cassert
option, many <I>assert()</I>s monitor the progress of the backend
and halt the program when something unexpected occurs.</P>
<P>The <I>postmaster</I> has a <I>-d</I> option that allows even more
detailed information to be reported. The <I>-d</I> option takes a
number that specifies the debug level. Be warned that high debug
level values generate large log files.</P>
<P>If the <I>postmaster</I> is not running, you can actually run the
<I>postgres</I> backend from the command line, and type your
<SMALL>SQL</SMALL> statement directly. This is recommended
<B>only</B> for debugging purposes. If you have compiled with debugging
symbols, you can use a debugger to see what is happening. Because
the backend was not started from <I>postmaster</I>, it is not
running in an identical environment and locking/backend interaction
problems might not be duplicated.</P>
<P>If the <I>postmaster</I> is running, start <I>psql</I> in one
window, then find the <SMALL>PID</SMALL> of the <I>postgres</I>
process used by <I>psql</I> using <CODE>SELECT pg_backend_pid()</CODE>.
Use a debugger to attach to the <I>postgres</I> <SMALL>PID</SMALL>.
You can set breakpoints in the debugger and issue queries from the
other. If you are looking to find the location that is generating
an error or log message, set a breakpoint at <I>errfinish</I>.
<I>psql</I>. If you are debugging <I>postgres</I> startup, you can
set PGOPTIONS="-W n", then start <I>psql</I>. This will cause startup
to delay for <I>n</I> seconds so you can attach to the process with
the debugger, set any breakpoints, and continue through the startup
sequence.</P>
<P>You can also compile with profiling to see what functions are
taking execution time. The backend profile files will be deposited
in the <I>pgsql/data</I> directory. The client profile file will be
put in the client's current directory. Linux requires a compile with
<I>-DLINUX_PROFILE</I> for proper profiling.</P>
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