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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) for PostgreSQL
Last updated: Sun Apr 24 07:27:43 EDT 2005
Current maintainer: Bruce Momjian (pgman@candle.pha.pa.us)
The most recent version of this document can be viewed at
http://www.postgresql.org/files/documentation/faqs/FAQ.html.
Platform-specific questions are answered at
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/faq/.
_________________________________________________________________
General Questions
1.1) What is PostgreSQL? How is it pronounced?
1.2) What is the copyright of PostgreSQL?
1.3) What platforms does PostgreSQL support?
1.4) Where can I get PostgreSQL?
1.5) Where can I get support?
1.6) How do I submit a bug report?
1.7) What is the latest release?
1.8) What documentation is available?
1.9) How do I find out about known bugs or missing features?
1.10) How can I learn SQL?
1.11) How do I join the development team?
1.12) How does PostgreSQL compare to other DBMSs?
User Client Questions
2.1) What interfaces are available for PostgreSQL?
2.2) What tools are available for using PostgreSQL with Web pages?
2.3) Does PostgreSQL have a graphical user interface?
Administrative Questions
3.1) How do I install PostgreSQL somewhere other than
/usr/local/pgsql?
3.2) How do I control connections from other hosts?
3.3) How do I tune the database engine for better performance?
3.4) What debugging features are available?
3.5) Why do I get "Sorry, too many clients" when trying to connect?
3.6) Why do I need to do a dump and restore to upgrade PostgreSQL
releases?
3.7) What computer hardware should I use?
Operational Questions
4.1) How do I SELECT only the first few rows of a query? A random row?
4.2) How do I find out what tables, indexes, databases, and users are
defined? How do I see the queries used by psql to display them?
4.3) How do you change a column's data type?
4.4) What is the maximum size for a row, a table, and a database?
4.5) How much database disk space is required to store data from a
typical text file?
4.6) Why are my queries slow? Why don't they use my indexes?
4.7) How do I see how the query optimizer is evaluating my query?
4.8) How do I perform regular expression searches and case-insensitive
regular expression searches? How do I use an index for
case-insensitive searches?
4.9) In a query, how do I detect if a field is NULL? How can I sort on
whether a field is NULL or not?
4.10) What is the difference between the various character types?
4.11.1) How do I create a serial/auto-incrementing field?
4.11.2) How do I get the value of a SERIAL insert?
4.11.3) Doesn't currval() lead to a race condition with other users?
4.11.4) Why aren't my sequence numbers reused on transaction abort?
Why are there gaps in the numbering of my sequence/SERIAL column?
4.12) What is an OID? What is a CTID?
4.13) Why do I get the error "ERROR: Memory exhausted in
AllocSetAlloc()"?
4.14) How do I tell what PostgreSQL version I am running?
4.15) How do I create a column that will default to the current time?
4.16) How do I perform an outer join?
4.17) How do I perform queries using multiple databases?
4.18) How do I return multiple rows or columns from a function?
4.19) Why do I get "relation with OID ##### does not exist" errors
when accessing temporary tables in PL/PgSQL functions?
4.20) What encryption options are available?
_________________________________________________________________
General Questions
1.1) What is PostgreSQL? How is it pronounced?
PostgreSQL is pronounced Post-Gres-Q-L, also called just Postgres.
PostgreSQL is an object-relational database system that has the
features of traditional commercial database systems with enhancements
to be found in next-generation DBMS systems. PostgreSQL is free and
the complete source code is available.
PostgreSQL development is performed by a team of mostly volunteer
developers spread throughout the world and communicating via the
Internet. It is a community project and is not controlled by any
company. To get involved, see the developer's FAQ at
http://www.postgresql.org/files/documentation/faqs/FAQ_DEV.html
1.2) What is the copyright of PostgreSQL?
PostgreSQL is distributed under the classic BSD license. It has no
restrictions on how the source code can be used. We like it and have
no intention of changing it.
This is the BSD license we use:
PostgreSQL Data Base Management System
Portions Copyright (c) 1996-2005, PostgreSQL Global Development Group
Portions Copyright (c) 1994-1996 Regents of the University of
California
Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
documentation for any purpose, without fee, and without a written
agreement is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice
and this paragraph and the following two paragraphs appear in all
copies.
IN NO EVENT SHALL THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BE LIABLE TO ANY PARTY
FOR DIRECT, INDIRECT, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES,
INCLUDING LOST PROFITS, ARISING OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE AND
ITS DOCUMENTATION, EVEN IF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HAS BEEN
ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ANY WARRANTIES,
INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE SOFTWARE
PROVIDED HEREUNDER IS ON AN "AS IS" BASIS, AND THE UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA HAS NO OBLIGATIONS TO PROVIDE MAINTENANCE, SUPPORT,
UPDATES, ENHANCEMENTS, OR MODIFICATIONS.
1.3) What platforms does PostgreSQL support?
In general, any modern Unix-compatible platform should be able to run
PostgreSQL. The platforms that had received explicit testing at the
time of release are listed in the installation instructions.
PostgreSQL also runs natively on Microsoft Windows NT-based operating
systems like Win2000, WinXP, and Win2003. A prepackaged installer is
available at http://pgfoundry.org/projects/pginstaller. MSDOS-based
versions of Windows (Win95, Win98, WinMe) can run PostgreSQL using
Cygwin.
There is also a Novell Netware 6 port at http://forge.novell.com, and
an OS/2 (eComStation) version at
http://hobbes.nmsu.edu/cgi-bin/h-search?sh=1&button=Search&key=postgre
SQL&stype=all&sort=type&dir=%2F.
1.4) Where can I get PostgreSQL?
Via web browser, use http://www.postgresql.org/ftp/, and via ftp, use
ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub/.
1.5) Where can I get support?
The PostgreSQL community provides assistance to many of its users via
email. The main web site to subscribe to the email lists is
http://www.postgresql.org/community/lists/. The general or bugs lists
are a good place to start.
The major IRC channel is #postgresql on Freenode (irc.freenode.net).
To connect you can use the Unix program irc -c '#postgresql' "$USER"
irc.freenode.net or use any other IRC clients. A Spanish one also
exists on the same network, (#postgresql-es), and a French one,
(#postgresqlfr). There is also a PostgreSQL channel on EFNet.
A list of commercial support companies is available at
http://techdocs.postgresql.org/companies.php.
1.6) How do I submit a bug report?
Visit the PostgreSQL bug form at
http://www.postgresql.org/support/submitbug.
Also check out our ftp site ftp://ftp.PostgreSQL.org/pub/ to see if
there is a more recent PostgreSQL version.
1.7) What is the latest release?
The latest release of PostgreSQL is version 8.0.2.
We plan to have a major release every year, with minor releases every
few months.
1.8) What documentation is available?
PostgreSQL includes extensive documentation, including a large manual,
manual pages, and some test examples. See the /doc directory. You can
also browse the manuals online at http://www.PostgreSQL.org/docs.
There are two PostgreSQL books available online at
http://www.postgresql.org/docs/books/awbook.html and
http://www.commandprompt.com/ppbook/. There are a number of PostgreSQL
books available for purchase. One of the most popular ones is by Korry
Douglas. A list of book reviews can be found at
http://techdocs.PostgreSQL.org/techdocs/bookreviews.php. There is also
a collection of PostgreSQL technical articles at
http://techdocs.PostgreSQL.org/.
The command line client program psql has some \d commands to show
information about types, operators, functions, aggregates, etc. - use
\? to display the available commands.
Our web site contains even more documentation.
1.9) How do I find out about known bugs or missing features?
PostgreSQL supports an extended subset of SQL-92. See our TODO list
for known bugs, missing features, and future plans.
1.10) How can I learn SQL?
First, consider the PostgreSQL-specific books mentioned above. Another
one is "Teach Yourself SQL in 21 Days, Second Edition" at
http://members.tripod.com/er4ebus/sql/index.htm
Many of our users like The Practical SQL Handbook, Bowman, Judith S.,
et al., Addison-Wesley. Others like The Complete Reference SQL, Groff
et al., McGraw-Hill. There is also a nice tutorial at
http://www.intermedia.net/support/sql/sqltut.shtm, at
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/graeme_birchall/HTM_COOK.HTM,
and at http://sqlcourse.com.
1.11) How do I join the development team?
See the Developer's FAQ.
1.12) How does PostgreSQL compare to other DBMSs?
There are several ways of measuring software: features, performance,
reliability, support, and price.
Features
PostgreSQL has most features present in large commercial DBMSs,
like transactions, subselects, triggers, views, foreign key
referential integrity, and sophisticated locking. We have some
features they do not have, like user-defined types,
inheritance, rules, and multi-version concurrency control to
reduce lock contention.
Performance
PostgreSQL's performance is comparable to other commercial and
open source databases. It is faster for some things, slower for
others. Our performance is usually +/-10% compared to other
databases.
Reliability
We realize that a DBMS must be reliable, or it is worthless. We
strive to release well-tested, stable code that has a minimum
of bugs. Each release has at least one month of beta testing,
and our release history shows that we can provide stable, solid
releases that are ready for production use. We believe we
compare favorably to other database software in this area.
Support
Our mailing lists provide contact with a large group of
developers and users to help resolve any problems encountered.
While we cannot guarantee a fix, commercial DBMSs do not always
supply a fix either. Direct access to developers, the user
community, manuals, and the source code often make PostgreSQL
support superior to other DBMSs. There is commercial
per-incident support available for those who need it. (See FAQ
section 1.5.)
Price
We are free for all use, both commercial and non-commercial.
You can add our code to your product with no limitations,
except those outlined in our BSD-style license stated above.
_________________________________________________________________
User Client Questions
2.1) What interfaces are available for PostgreSQL?
The PostgreSQL install includes only the C and embedded C interfaces.
All other interfaces are independent projects that are downloaded
separately; being separate allows them to have their own release
schedule and development teams.
Some programming languages like PHP include an interface to
PostgreSQL. Interfaces for languages like Perl, TCL, Python, and many
others are available at http://gborg.postgresql.org in the
Drivers/Interfaces section and via Internet search.
2.2) What tools are available for using PostgreSQL with Web pages?
A nice introduction to Database-backed Web pages can be seen at:
http://www.webreview.com
For Web integration, PHP (http://www.php.net) is an excellent
interface.
For complex cases, many use the Perl and DBD::Pg with CGI.pm or
mod_perl.
2.3) Does PostgreSQL have a graphical user interface?
Yes, see http://techdocs.postgresql.org/guides/GUITools for a detailed
list.
_________________________________________________________________
Administrative Questions
3.1) How do I install PostgreSQL somewhere other than /usr/local/pgsql?
Specify the --prefix option when running configure.
3.2) How do I control connections from other hosts?
By default, PostgreSQL only allows connections from the local machine
using Unix domain sockets or TCP/IP connections. Other machines will
not be able to connect unless you modify listen_addresses in the
postgresql.conf file, enable host-based authentication by modifying
the $PGDATA/pg_hba.conf file, and restart the server.
3.3) How do I tune the database engine for better performance?
There are three major areas for potential performance improvement:
Query Changes
This involves modifying queries to obtain better performance:
+ Creation of indexes, including expression and partial indexes
+ Use of COPY instead of multiple INSERTs
+ Grouping of multiple statements into a single transaction to
reduce commit overhead
+ Use of CLUSTER when retrieving many rows from an index
+ Use of LIMIT for returning a subset of a query's output
+ Use of Prepared queries
+ Use of ANALYZE to maintain accurate optimizer statistics
+ Regular use of VACUUM or pg_autovacuum
+ Dropping of indexes during large data changes
Server Configuration
A number of postgresql.conf settings affect performance. For
more details, see Administration Guide/Server Run-time
Environment/Run-time Configuration for a full listing, and for
commentary see
http://www.varlena.com/varlena/GeneralBits/Tidbits/annotated_co
nf_e.html and
http://www.varlena.com/varlena/GeneralBits/Tidbits/perf.html.
Hardware Selection
The effect of hardware on performance is detailed in
http://candle.pha.pa.us/main/writings/pgsql/hw_performance/inde
x.html and http://www.powerpostgresql.com/PerfList/.
3.4) What debugging features are available?
There are many log_* server configuration variables that enable
printing of query and process statistics which can be very useful for
debugging and performance measurements.
3.5) Why do I get "Sorry, too many clients" when trying to connect?
You have reached the default limit is 100 database sessions. You need
to increase the postmaster's limit on how many concurrent backend
processes it can start by changing the max_connections value in
postgresql.conf and restarting the postmaster.
3.6) Why do I need to do a dump and restore to upgrade between major
PostgreSQL releases?
The PostgreSQL team makes only small changes between minor releases,
so upgrading from 7.4.0 to 7.4.1 does not require a dump and restore.
However, major releases (e.g. from 7.3 to 7.4) often change the
internal format of system tables and data files. These changes are
often complex, so we don't maintain backward compatibility for data
files. A dump outputs data in a generic format that can then be loaded
in using the new internal format.
3.7) What computer hardware should I use?
Because PC hardware is mostly compatible, people tend to believe that
all PC hardware is of equal quality. It is not. ECC RAM, SCSI, and
quality motherboards are more reliable and have better performance
than less expensive hardware. PostgreSQL will run on almost any
hardware, but if reliability and performance are important it is wise
to research your hardware options thoroughly. Our email lists can be
used to discuss hardware options and tradeoffs.
_________________________________________________________________
Operational Questions
4.1) How do I SELECT only the first few rows of a query? A random row?
To retrieve only a few rows, if you know at the number of rows needed
at the time of the SELECT use LIMIT . If an index matches the ORDER BY
it is possible the entire query does not have to be executed. If you
don't know the number of rows at SELECT time, use a cursor and FETCH.
To SELECT a random row, use:
SELECT col
FROM tab
ORDER BY random()
LIMIT 1;
4.2) How do I find out what tables, indexes, databases, and users are
defined? How do I see the queries used by psql to display them?
Use the \dt command to see tables in psql. For a complete list of
commands inside psql you can use \?. Alternatively you can read the
source code for psql in file pgsql/src/bin/psql/describe.c, it
contains SQL commands that generate the output for psql's backslash
commands. You can also start psql with the -E option so it will print
out the queries it uses to execute the commands you give. PostgreSQL
also provides an SQL compliant INFORMATION SCHEMA interface you can
query to get information about the database.
There are also system tables beginning with pg_ that describe these
too.
Use psql -l will list all databases.
Also try the file pgsql/src/tutorial/syscat.source. It illustrates
many of the SELECTs needed to get information from the database system
tables.
4.3) How do you change a column's data type?
Changing the data type of a column can be done easily in 8.0 and later
with ALTER TABLE ALTER COLUMN TYPE.
In earlier releases, do this:
BEGIN;
ALTER TABLE tab ADD COLUMN new_col new_data_type;
UPDATE tab SET new_col = CAST(old_col AS new_data_type);
ALTER TABLE tab DROP COLUMN old_col;
COMMIT;
You might then want to do VACUUM FULL tab to reclaim the disk space
used by the expired rows.
4.4) What is the maximum size for a row, a table, and a database?
These are the limits:
Maximum size for a database? unlimited (32 TB databases exist)
Maximum size for a table? 32 TB
Maximum size for a row? 1.6TB
Maximum size for a field? 1 GB
Maximum number of rows in a table? unlimited
Maximum number of columns in a table? 250-1600 depending on column
types
Maximum number of indexes on a table? unlimited
Of course, these are not actually unlimited, but limited to available
disk space and memory/swap space. Performance may suffer when these
values get unusually large.
The maximum table size of 32 TB does not require large file support
from the operating system. Large tables are stored as multiple 1 GB
files so file system size limits are not important.
The maximum table size and maximum number of columns can be quadrupled
by increasing the default block size to 32k.
4.5) How much database disk space is required to store data from a typical
text file?
A PostgreSQL database may require up to five times the disk space to
store data from a text file.
As an example, consider a file of 100,000 lines with an integer and
text description on each line. Suppose the text string avergages
twenty bytes in length. The flat file would be 2.8 MB. The size of the
PostgreSQL database file containing this data can be estimated as 6.4
MB:
32 bytes: each row header (approximate)
24 bytes: one int field and one text field
+ 4 bytes: pointer on page to tuple
----------------------------------------
60 bytes per row
The data page size in PostgreSQL is 8192 bytes (8 KB), so:
8192 bytes per page
------------------- = 136 rows per database page (rounded down)
60 bytes per row
100000 data rows
-------------------- = 735 database pages (rounded up)
128 rows per page
735 database pages * 8192 bytes per page = 6,021,120 bytes (6 MB)
Indexes do not require as much overhead, but do contain the data that
is being indexed, so they can be large also.
NULLs are stored as bitmaps, so they use very little space.
4.6) Why are my queries slow? Why don't they use my indexes?
Indexes are not used by every query. Indexes are used only if the
table is larger than a minimum size, and the query selects only a
small percentage of the rows in the table. This is because the random
disk access caused by an index scan can be slower than a straight read
through the table, or sequential scan.
To determine if an index should be used, PostgreSQL must have
statistics about the table. These statistics are collected using
VACUUM ANALYZE, or simply ANALYZE. Using statistics, the optimizer
knows how many rows are in the table, and can better determine if
indexes should be used. Statistics are also valuable in determining
optimal join order and join methods. Statistics collection should be
performed periodically as the contents of the table change.
Indexes are normally not used for ORDER BY or to perform joins. A
sequential scan followed by an explicit sort is usually faster than an
index scan of a large table.
However, LIMIT combined with ORDER BY often will use an index because
only a small portion of the table is returned. In fact, though MAX()
and MIN() don't use indexes, it is possible to retrieve such values
using an index with ORDER BY and LIMIT:
SELECT col
FROM tab
ORDER BY col [ DESC ]
LIMIT 1;
If you believe the optimizer is incorrect in choosing a sequential
scan, use SET enable_seqscan TO 'off' and run query again to see if an
index scan is indeed faster.
When using wild-card operators such as LIKE or ~, indexes can only be
used in certain circumstances:
* The beginning of the search string must be anchored to the start
of the string, i.e.
+ LIKE patterns must not start with %.
+ ~ (regular expression) patterns must start with ^.
* The search string can not start with a character class, e.g.
[a-e].
* Case-insensitive searches such as ILIKE and ~* do not utilize
indexes. Instead, use expression indexes, which are described in
section 4.8.
* The default C locale must be used during initdb because it is not
possible to know the next-greatest character in a non-C locale.
You can create a special text_pattern_ops index for such cases
that work only for LIKE indexing.
In pre-8.0 releases, indexes often can not be used unless the data
types exactly match the index's column types. This was particularly
true of int2, int8, and numeric column indexes.
4.7) How do I see how the query optimizer is evaluating my query?
See the EXPLAIN manual page.
4.8) How do I perform regular expression searches and case-insensitive
regular expression searches? How do I use an index for case-insensitive
searches?
The ~ operator does regular expression matching, and ~* does
case-insensitive regular expression matching. The case-insensitive
variant of LIKE is called ILIKE.
Case-insensitive equality comparisons are normally expressed as:
SELECT *
FROM tab
WHERE lower(col) = 'abc';
This will not use an standard index. However, if you create a
expresssion index, it will be used:
CREATE INDEX tabindex ON tab (lower(col));
4.9) In a query, how do I detect if a field is NULL? How can I sort on
whether a field is NULL or not?
You test the column with IS NULL and IS NOT NULL, like this:
SELECT *
FROM tab
WHERE col IS NULL;
To sort by the NULL status, use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL modifiers
in your ORDER BY clause. Things that are true will sort higher than
things that are false, so the following will put NULL entries at the
top of the resulting list:
SELECT *
FROM tab
ORDER BY (col IS NOT NULL)
4.10) What is the difference between the various character types?
Type Internal Name Notes
VARCHAR(n) varchar size specifies maximum length, no padding
CHAR(n) bpchar blank padded to the specified fixed length
TEXT text no specific upper limit on length
BYTEA bytea variable-length byte array (null-byte safe)
"char" char one character
You will see the internal name when examining system catalogs and in
some error messages.
The first four types above are "varlena" types (i.e., the first four
bytes on disk are the length, followed by the data). Thus the actual
space used is slightly greater than the declared size. However, long
values are also subject to compression, so the space on disk might
also be less than expected.
VARCHAR(n) is best when storing variable-length strings and it limits
how long a string can be. TEXT is for strings of unlimited length,
with a maximum of one gigabyte.
CHAR(n) is for storing strings that are all the same length. CHAR(n)
pads with blanks to the specified length, while VARCHAR(n) only stores
the characters supplied. BYTEA is for storing binary data,
particularly values that include NULL bytes. All the types described
here have similar performance characteristics.
4.11.1) How do I create a serial/auto-incrementing field?
PostgreSQL supports a SERIAL data type. It auto-creates a sequence.
For example, this:
CREATE TABLE person (
id SERIAL,
name TEXT
);
is automatically translated into this:
CREATE SEQUENCE person_id_seq;
CREATE TABLE person (
id INT4 NOT NULL DEFAULT nextval('person_id_seq'),
name TEXT
);
See the create_sequence manual page for more information about
sequences.
4.11.2) How do I get the value of a SERIAL insert?
One approach is to retrieve the next SERIAL value from the sequence
object with the nextval() function before inserting and then insert it
explicitly. Using the example table in 4.11.1, an example in a
pseudo-language would look like this:
new_id = execute("SELECT nextval('person_id_seq')");
execute("INSERT INTO person (id, name) VALUES (new_id, 'Blaise Pascal')");
You would then also have the new value stored in new_id for use in
other queries (e.g., as a foreign key to the person table). Note that
the name of the automatically created SEQUENCE object will be named
<table>_< serialcolumn>_seq, where table and serialcolumn are the
names of your table and your SERIAL column, respectively.
Alternatively, you could retrieve the assigned SERIAL value with the
currval() function after it was inserted by default, e.g.,
execute("INSERT INTO person (name) VALUES ('Blaise Pascal')");
new_id = execute("SELECT currval('person_id_seq')");
4.11.3) Doesn't currval() lead to a race condition with other users?
No. currval() returns the current value assigned by your session, not
by all sessions.
4.11.4) Why aren't my sequence numbers reused on transaction abort? Why are
there gaps in the numbering of my sequence/SERIAL column?
To improve concurrency, sequence values are given out to running
transactions as needed and are not locked until the transaction
completes. This causes gaps in numbering from aborted transactions.
4.12) What is an OID? What is a CTID?
Every row that is created in PostgreSQL gets a unique OID unless
created WITHOUT OIDS. OIDs are autotomatically assigned unique 4-byte
integers that are unique across the entire installation. However, they
overflow at 4 billion, and then the OIDs start being duplicated.
PostgreSQL uses OIDs to link its internal system tables together.
To uniquely number columns in user tables, it is best to use SERIAL
rather than OIDs because SERIAL sequences are unique only within a
single table. and are therefore less likely to overflow. SERIAL8 is
available for storing eight-byte sequence values.
CTIDs are used to identify specific physical rows with block and
offset values. CTIDs change after rows are modified or reloaded. They
are used by index entries to point to physical rows.
4.13) Why do I get the error "ERROR: Memory exhausted in AllocSetAlloc()"?
You probably have run out of virtual memory on your system, or your
kernel has a low limit for certain resources. Try this before starting
postmaster:
ulimit -d 262144
limit datasize 256m
Depending on your shell, only one of these may succeed, but it will
set your process data segment limit much higher and perhaps allow the
query to complete. This command applies to the current process, and
all subprocesses created after the command is run. If you are having a
problem with the SQL client because the backend is returning too much
data, try it before starting the client.
4.14) How do I tell what PostgreSQL version I am running?
From psql, type SELECT version();
4.15) How do I create a column that will default to the current time?
Use CURRENT_TIMESTAMP:
CREATE TABLE test (x int, modtime TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP );
4.16) How do I perform an outer join?
PostgreSQL supports outer joins using the SQL standard syntax. Here
are two examples:
SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT OUTER JOIN t2 ON (t1.col = t2.col);
or
SELECT *
FROM t1 LEFT OUTER JOIN t2 USING (col);
These identical queries join t1.col to t2.col, and also return any
unjoined rows in t1 (those with no match in t2). A RIGHT join would
add unjoined rows of t2. A FULL join would return the matched rows
plus all unjoined rows from t1 and t2. The word OUTER is optional and
is assumed in LEFT, RIGHT, and FULL joins. Ordinary joins are called
INNER joins.
4.17) How do I perform queries using multiple databases?
There is no way to query a database other than the current one.
Because PostgreSQL loads database-specific system catalogs, it is
uncertain how a cross-database query should even behave.
contrib/dblink allows cross-database queries using function calls. Of
course, a client can also make simultaneous connections to different
databases and merge the results on the client side.
4.18) How do I return multiple rows or columns from a function?
It is easy using set-returning functions,
http://techdocs.postgresql.org/guides/SetReturningFunctions
.
4.19) Why do I get "relation with OID ##### does not exist" errors when
accessing temporary tables in PL/PgSQL functions?
PL/PgSQL caches function scripts, and an unfortunate side effect is
that if a PL/PgSQL function accesses a temporary table, and that table
is later dropped and recreated, and the function called again, the
function will fail because the cached function contents still point to
the old temporary table. The solution is to use EXECUTE for temporary
table access in PL/PgSQL. This will cause the query to be reparsed
every time.
4.20) What encryption options are available?
* contrib/pgcrypto contains many encryption functions for use in SQL
queries.
* To encrypt transmission from the client to the server, the server
must have the ssl option set to true in postgresql.conf, and an
applicable host or hostssl record must exist in pg_hba.conf, and
the client sslmode must not be disable. (Note that it is also
possible to use a third-party encrypted transport, such as stunnel
or ssh, rather than PostgreSQL's native SSL connections.)
* Database user passwords are automatically encrypted when stored in
the system tables.
* The server can also run using an encrypted file system.
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