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Bruce Momjian 1372515271 Add INET/CIDR operators: and, or, not, plus int8, minus int8, and inet 
minus inet.

Stephen R. van den Berg
2006-02-11 03:32:41 +00:00

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<!--
$PostgreSQL: pgsql/doc/src/sgml/func.sgml,v 1.304 2006/02/11 03:32:38 momjian Exp $
PostgreSQL documentation
-->
<chapter id="functions">
<title>Functions and Operators</title>
<indexterm zone="functions">
<primary>function</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions">
<primary>operator</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> provides a large number of
functions and operators for the built-in data types. Users can also
define their own functions and operators, as described in
<xref linkend="server-programming">. The
<application>psql</application> commands <command>\df</command> and
<command>\do</command> can be used to show the list of all actually
available functions and operators, respectively.
</para>
<para>
If you are concerned about portability then take note that most of
the functions and operators described in this chapter, with the
exception of the most trivial arithmetic and comparison operators
and some explicitly marked functions, are not specified by the
<acronym>SQL</acronym> standard. Some of the extended functionality
is present in other <acronym>SQL</acronym> database management
systems, and in many cases this functionality is compatible and
consistent between the various implementations. This chapter is also
not exhaustive; additional functions appear in relevant sections of
the manual.
</para>
<sect1 id="functions-logical">
<title>Logical Operators</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-logical">
<primary>operator</primary>
<secondary>logical</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>Boolean</primary>
<secondary>operators</secondary>
<see>operators, logical</see>
</indexterm>
<para>
The usual logical operators are available:
<indexterm>
<primary>AND (operator)</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>OR (operator)</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>NOT (operator)</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>conjunction</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>disjunction</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>negation</primary>
</indexterm>
<simplelist>
<member><literal>AND</></member>
<member><literal>OR</></member>
<member><literal>NOT</></member>
</simplelist>
<acronym>SQL</acronym> uses a three-valued Boolean logic where the null value represents
<quote>unknown</quote>. Observe the following truth tables:
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable></entry>
<entry><replaceable>b</replaceable></entry>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable> AND <replaceable>b</replaceable></entry>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable> OR <replaceable>b</replaceable></entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
<informaltable>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry><replaceable>a</replaceable></entry>
<entry>NOT <replaceable>a</replaceable></entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>FALSE</entry>
<entry>TRUE</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>NULL</entry>
<entry>NULL</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</informaltable>
</para>
<para>
The operators <literal>AND</literal> and <literal>OR</literal> are
commutative, that is, you can switch the left and right operand
without affecting the result. But see <xref
linkend="syntax-express-eval"> for more information about the
order of evaluation of subexpressions.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-comparison">
<title>Comparison Operators</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-comparison">
<primary>comparison</primary>
<secondary>operators</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The usual comparison operators are available, shown in <xref
linkend="functions-comparison-table">.
</para>
<table id="functions-comparison-table">
<title>Comparison Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>less than</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>greater than</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>less than or equal to</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>greater than or equal to</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>=</literal> </entry>
<entry>equal</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&gt;</literal> or <literal>!=</literal> </entry>
<entry>not equal</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<note>
<para>
The <literal>!=</literal> operator is converted to
<literal>&lt;&gt;</literal> in the parser stage. It is not
possible to implement <literal>!=</literal> and
<literal>&lt;&gt;</literal> operators that do different things.
</para>
</note>
<para>
Comparison operators are available for all data types where this
makes sense. All comparison operators are binary operators that
return values of type <type>boolean</type>; expressions like
<literal>1 &lt; 2 &lt; 3</literal> are not valid (because there is
no <literal>&lt;</literal> operator to compare a Boolean value with
<literal>3</literal>).
</para>
<para>
<indexterm>
<primary>BETWEEN</primary>
</indexterm>
In addition to the comparison operators, the special
<token>BETWEEN</token> construct is available.
<synopsis>
<replaceable>a</replaceable> BETWEEN <replaceable>x</replaceable> AND <replaceable>y</replaceable>
</synopsis>
is equivalent to
<synopsis>
<replaceable>a</replaceable> &gt;= <replaceable>x</replaceable> AND <replaceable>a</replaceable> &lt;= <replaceable>y</replaceable>
</synopsis>
Similarly,
<synopsis>
<replaceable>a</replaceable> NOT BETWEEN <replaceable>x</replaceable> AND <replaceable>y</replaceable>
</synopsis>
is equivalent to
<synopsis>
<replaceable>a</replaceable> &lt; <replaceable>x</replaceable> OR <replaceable>a</replaceable> &gt; <replaceable>y</replaceable>
</synopsis>
There is no difference between the two respective forms apart from
the <acronym>CPU</acronym> cycles required to rewrite the first one
into the second one internally.
<indexterm>
<primary>BETWEEN SYMETRIC</primary>
</indexterm>
<token>BETWEEN SYMMETRIC</> is the same as <literal>BETWEEN</>
except there is no requirement that the argument to the left of <literal>AND</> be less than
or equal to the argument on the right; the proper range is automatically determined.
</para>
<para>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NULL</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NOT NULL</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ISNULL</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>NOTNULL</primary>
</indexterm>
To check whether a value is or is not null, use the constructs
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NULL
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NOT NULL
</synopsis>
or the equivalent, but nonstandard, constructs
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> ISNULL
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> NOTNULL
</synopsis>
<indexterm><primary>null value</primary><secondary>comparing</secondary></indexterm>
</para>
<para>
Do <emphasis>not</emphasis> write
<literal><replaceable>expression</replaceable> = NULL</literal>
because <literal>NULL</> is not <quote>equal to</quote>
<literal>NULL</>. (The null value represents an unknown value,
and it is not known whether two unknown values are equal.) This
behavior conforms to the SQL standard.
</para>
<tip>
<para>
Some applications may expect that
<literal><replaceable>expression</replaceable> = NULL</literal>
returns true if <replaceable>expression</replaceable> evaluates to
the null value. It is highly recommended that these applications
be modified to comply with the SQL standard. However, if that
cannot be done the <xref linkend="guc-transform-null-equals">
configuration variable is available. If it is enabled,
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will convert <literal>x =
NULL</literal> clauses to <literal>x IS NULL</literal>. This was
the default behavior in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
releases 6.5 through 7.1.
</para>
</tip>
<para>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS DISTINCT FROM</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</primary>
</indexterm>
The ordinary comparison operators yield null (signifying <quote>unknown</>)
when either input is null. Another way to do comparisons is with the
<literal>IS <optional> NOT </> DISTINCT FROM</literal> construct:
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>expression</replaceable>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NOT DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>expression</replaceable>
</synopsis>
For non-null inputs, <literal>IS DISTINCT FROM</literal> is
the same as the <literal>&lt;&gt;</> operator. However, when both
inputs are null it will return false, and when just one input is
null it will return true. Similarly, <literal>IS NOT DISTINCT
FROM</literal> is identical to <literal>=</literal> for non-null
inputs, but it returns true when both inputs are null, and false when only
one input is null. Thus, these constructs effectively act as though null
were a normal data value, rather than <quote>unknown</>.
</para>
<para>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS TRUE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NOT TRUE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS FALSE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NOT FALSE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS UNKNOWN</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NOT UNKNOWN</primary>
</indexterm>
Boolean values can also be tested using the constructs
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS TRUE
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NOT TRUE
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS FALSE
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NOT FALSE
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS UNKNOWN
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IS NOT UNKNOWN
</synopsis>
These will always return true or false, never a null value, even when the
operand is null.
A null input is treated as the logical value <quote>unknown</>.
Notice that <literal>IS UNKNOWN</> and <literal>IS NOT UNKNOWN</> are
effectively the same as <literal>IS NULL</literal> and
<literal>IS NOT NULL</literal>, respectively, except that the input
expression must be of Boolean type.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-math">
<title>Mathematical Functions and Operators</title>
<para>
Mathematical operators are provided for many
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> types. For types without
common mathematical conventions for all possible permutations
(e.g., date/time types) we
describe the actual behavior in subsequent sections.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-math-op-table"> shows the available mathematical operators.
</para>
<table id="functions-math-op-table">
<title>Mathematical Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry>addition</entry>
<entry><literal>2 + 3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry>subtraction</entry>
<entry><literal>2 - 3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>-1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>*</literal> </entry>
<entry>multiplication</entry>
<entry><literal>2 * 3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>6</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>/</literal> </entry>
<entry>division (integer division truncates results)</entry>
<entry><literal>4 / 2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>2</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>%</literal> </entry>
<entry>modulo (remainder)</entry>
<entry><literal>5 % 4</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>^</literal> </entry>
<entry>exponentiation</entry>
<entry><literal>2.0 ^ 3.0</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>|/</literal> </entry>
<entry>square root</entry>
<entry><literal>|/ 25.0</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>||/</literal> </entry>
<entry>cube root</entry>
<entry><literal>||/ 27.0</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>!</literal> </entry>
<entry>factorial</entry>
<entry><literal>5 !</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>120</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>!!</literal> </entry>
<entry>factorial (prefix operator)</entry>
<entry><literal>!! 5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>120</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>@</literal> </entry>
<entry>absolute value</entry>
<entry><literal>@ -5.0</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&amp;</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise AND</entry>
<entry><literal>91 &amp; 15</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>11</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>|</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise OR</entry>
<entry><literal>32 | 3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>35</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>#</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise XOR</entry>
<entry><literal>17 # 5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>20</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>~</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise NOT</entry>
<entry><literal>~1</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>-2</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise shift left</entry>
<entry><literal>1 &lt;&lt; 4</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>16</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise shift right</entry>
<entry><literal>8 &gt;&gt; 2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>2</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The bitwise operators work only on integral data types, whereas
the others are available for all numeric data types. The bitwise
operators are also available for the bit
string types <type>bit</type> and <type>bit varying</type>, as
shown in <xref linkend="functions-bit-string-op-table">.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-math-func-table"> shows the available
mathematical functions. In the table, <literal>dp</literal>
indicates <type>double precision</type>. Many of these functions
are provided in multiple forms with different argument types.
Except where noted, any given form of a function returns the same
data type as its argument.
The functions working with <type>double precision</type> data are mostly
implemented on top of the host system's C library; accuracy and behavior in
boundary cases may therefore vary depending on the host system.
</para>
<indexterm>
<primary>abs</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>cbrt</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ceiling</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>degrees</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>exp</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>floor</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ln</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>log</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>mod</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>&pi;</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>power</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>radians</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>random</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>round</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>setseed</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>sign</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>sqrt</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>trunc</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>width_bucket</primary>
</indexterm>
<table id="functions-math-func-table">
<title>Mathematical Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>abs</>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as <replaceable>x</>)</entry>
<entry>absolute value</entry>
<entry><literal>abs(-17.4)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>17.4</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>cbrt</function>(<type>dp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>dp</type></entry>
<entry>cube root</entry>
<entry><literal>cbrt(27.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>ceil</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>smallest integer not less than argument</entry>
<entry><literal>ceil(-42.8)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>-42</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>ceiling</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>smallest integer not less than argument (alias for <function>ceil</function>)</entry>
<entry><literal>ceiling(-95.3)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>-95</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>degrees</function>(<type>dp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>dp</type></entry>
<entry>radians to degrees</entry>
<entry><literal>degrees(0.5)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>28.6478897565412</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>exp</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>exponential</entry>
<entry><literal>exp(1.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>2.71828182845905</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>floor</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>largest integer not greater than argument</entry>
<entry><literal>floor(-42.8)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>-43</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>ln</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>natural logarithm</entry>
<entry><literal>ln(2.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>0.693147180559945</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>log</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>base 10 logarithm</entry>
<entry><literal>log(100.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>2</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>log</function>(<parameter>b</parameter> <type>numeric</type>,
<parameter>x</parameter> <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>numeric</type></entry>
<entry>logarithm to base <parameter>b</parameter></entry>
<entry><literal>log(2.0, 64.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>6.0000000000</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>mod</function>(<parameter>y</parameter>,
<parameter>x</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as argument types)</entry>
<entry>remainder of <parameter>y</parameter>/<parameter>x</parameter></entry>
<entry><literal>mod(9,4)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pi</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>dp</type></entry>
<entry><quote>&pi;</quote> constant</entry>
<entry><literal>pi()</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3.14159265358979</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>power</function>(<parameter>a</parameter> <type>dp</type>,
<parameter>b</parameter> <type>dp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>dp</type></entry>
<entry><parameter>a</> raised to the power of <parameter>b</parameter></entry>
<entry><literal>power(9.0, 3.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>729</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>power</function>(<parameter>a</parameter> <type>numeric</type>,
<parameter>b</parameter> <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>numeric</type></entry>
<entry><parameter>a</> raised to the power of <parameter>b</parameter></entry>
<entry><literal>power(9.0, 3.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>729</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>radians</function>(<type>dp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>dp</type></entry>
<entry>degrees to radians</entry>
<entry><literal>radians(45.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>0.785398163397448</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>random</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>dp</type></entry>
<entry>random value between 0.0 and 1.0</entry>
<entry><literal>random()</literal></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>round</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>round to nearest integer</entry>
<entry><literal>round(42.4)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>42</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>round</function>(<parameter>v</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>s</parameter> <type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>numeric</type></entry>
<entry>round to <parameter>s</parameter> decimal places</entry>
<entry><literal>round(42.4382, 2)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>42.44</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>setseed</function>(<type>dp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>set seed for subsequent <literal>random()</literal> calls</entry>
<entry><literal>setseed(0.54823)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1177314959</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>sign</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>sign of the argument (-1, 0, +1)</entry>
<entry><literal>sign(-8.4)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>-1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>sqrt</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>square root</entry>
<entry><literal>sqrt(2.0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1.4142135623731</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>trunc</function>(<type>dp</type> or <type>numeric</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry>(same as input)</entry>
<entry>truncate toward zero</entry>
<entry><literal>trunc(42.8)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>42</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>trunc</function>(<parameter>v</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>s</parameter> <type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>numeric</type></entry>
<entry>truncate to <parameter>s</parameter> decimal places</entry>
<entry><literal>trunc(42.4382, 2)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>42.43</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>width_bucket</function>(<parameter>op</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>b1</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>b2</parameter> <type>numeric</type>, <parameter>count</parameter> <type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>return the bucket to which <parameter>operand</> would
be assigned in an equidepth histogram with <parameter>count</>
buckets, an upper bound of <parameter>b1</>, and a lower bound
of <parameter>b2</></entry>
<entry><literal>width_bucket(5.35, 0.024, 10.06, 5)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Finally, <xref linkend="functions-math-trig-table"> shows the
available trigonometric functions. All trigonometric functions
take arguments and return values of type <type>double
precision</type>.
</para>
<indexterm>
<primary>acos</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>asin</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>atan</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>atan2</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>cos</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>cot</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>sin</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>tan</primary>
</indexterm>
<table id="functions-math-trig-table">
<title>Trigonometric Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>acos</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>inverse cosine</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>asin</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>inverse sine</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>atan</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>inverse tangent</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>atan2</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>,
<replaceable>y</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>inverse tangent of
<literal><replaceable>x</replaceable>/<replaceable>y</replaceable></literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>cos</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>cosine</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>cot</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>cotangent</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>sin</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>sine</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>tan</function>(<replaceable>x</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry>tangent</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-string">
<title>String Functions and Operators</title>
<para>
This section describes functions and operators for examining and
manipulating string values. Strings in this context include values
of all the types <type>character</type>, <type>character
varying</type>, and <type>text</type>. Unless otherwise noted, all
of the functions listed below work on all of these types, but be
wary of potential effects of the automatic padding when using the
<type>character</type> type. Generally, the functions described
here also work on data of non-string types by converting that data
to a string representation first. Some functions also exist
natively for the bit-string types.
</para>
<para>
<acronym>SQL</acronym> defines some string functions with a special syntax where
certain key words rather than commas are used to separate the
arguments. Details are in <xref linkend="functions-string-sql">.
These functions are also implemented using the regular syntax for
function invocation. (See <xref linkend="functions-string-other">.)
</para>
<indexterm>
<primary>bit_length</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>char_length</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>convert</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>lower</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>octet_length</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>overlay</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>position</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>substring</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>trim</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>upper</primary>
</indexterm>
<table id="functions-string-sql">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> String Functions and Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><parameter>string</parameter> <literal>||</literal>
<parameter>string</parameter></literal></entry>
<entry> <type>text</type> </entry>
<entry>
String concatenation
<indexterm>
<primary>character string</primary>
<secondary>concatenation</secondary>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>'Post' || 'greSQL'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>PostgreSQL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>bit_length</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>Number of bits in string</entry>
<entry><literal>bit_length('jose')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>32</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>char_length</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal> or <literal><function>character_length</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>
Number of characters in string
<indexterm>
<primary>character string</primary>
<secondary>length</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>length</primary>
<secondary sortas="character string">of a character string</secondary>
<see>character string, length</see>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>char_length('jose')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>4</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>convert</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>
using <parameter>conversion_name</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Change encoding using specified conversion name. Conversions
can be defined by <command>CREATE CONVERSION</command>. Also
there are some pre-defined conversion names. See <xref
linkend="conversion-names"> for available conversion
names.
</entry>
<entry><literal>convert('PostgreSQL' using iso_8859_1_to_utf8)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'PostgreSQL'</literal> in UTF8 (Unicode, 8-bit) encoding</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>lower</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Convert string to lower case</entry>
<entry><literal>lower('TOM')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>tom</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>octet_length</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>Number of bytes in string</entry>
<entry><literal>octet_length('jose')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>4</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>overlay</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> placing <parameter>string</parameter> from <type>int</type> <optional>for <type>int</type></optional>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Replace substring
</entry>
<entry><literal>overlay('Txxxxas' placing 'hom' from 2 for 4)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>Thomas</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>position</function>(<parameter>substring</parameter> in <parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>Location of specified substring</entry>
<entry><literal>position('om' in 'Thomas')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>substring</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <optional>from <type>int</type></optional> <optional>for <type>int</type></optional>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Extract substring
</entry>
<entry><literal>substring('Thomas' from 2 for 3)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>hom</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>substring</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> from <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Extract substring matching POSIX regular expression
</entry>
<entry><literal>substring('Thomas' from '...$')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>mas</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>substring</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> from <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> for <replaceable>escape</replaceable>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Extract substring matching <acronym>SQL</acronym> regular
expression
</entry>
<entry><literal>substring('Thomas' from '%#"o_a#"_' for '#')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>oma</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>trim</function>(<optional>leading | trailing | both</optional>
<optional><parameter>characters</parameter></optional> from
<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Remove the longest string containing only the
<parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default) from the
start/end/both ends of the <parameter>string</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>trim(both 'x' from 'xTomxx')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>Tom</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>upper</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Convert string to uppercase</entry>
<entry><literal>upper('tom')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>TOM</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Additional string manipulation functions are available and are
listed in <xref linkend="functions-string-other">. Some of them are used internally to implement the
<acronym>SQL</acronym>-standard string functions listed in <xref linkend="functions-string-sql">.
</para>
<indexterm>
<primary>ascii</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>btrim</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>chr</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>decode</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>encode</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>initcap</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>lpad</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ltrim</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>md5</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>pg_client_encoding</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>quote_ident</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>quote_literal</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>repeat</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>replace</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>rpad</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>rtrim</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>split_part</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>strpos</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>substr</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>to_ascii</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>to_hex</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>translate</primary>
</indexterm>
<table id="functions-string-other">
<title>Other String Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>ascii</function>(<type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry><acronym>ASCII</acronym> code of the first character of the argument</entry>
<entry><literal>ascii('x')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>120</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>btrim</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>
<optional>, <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type></optional>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Remove the longest string consisting only of characters
in <parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default)
from the start and end of <parameter>string</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>btrim('xyxtrimyyx', 'xy')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>trim</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>chr</function>(<type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Character with the given <acronym>ASCII</acronym> code</entry>
<entry><literal>chr(65)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>A</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>convert</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>
<type>text</type>,
<optional><parameter>src_encoding</parameter> <type>name</type>,</optional>
<parameter>dest_encoding</parameter> <type>name</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Convert string to <parameter>dest_encoding</parameter>.
The original encoding is specified by
<parameter>src_encoding</parameter>. If
<parameter>src_encoding</parameter> is omitted, database
encoding is assumed.
</entry>
<entry><literal>convert( 'text_in_utf8', 'UTF8', 'LATIN1')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>text_in_utf8</literal> represented in ISO 8859-1 encoding</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>decode</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry>
Decode binary data from <parameter>string</parameter> previously
encoded with <function>encode</>. Parameter type is same as in <function>encode</>.
</entry>
<entry><literal>decode('MTIzAAE=', 'base64')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>123\000\001</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>encode</function>(<parameter>data</parameter> <type>bytea</type>,
<parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Encode binary data to <acronym>ASCII</acronym>-only representation. Supported
types are: <literal>base64</>, <literal>hex</>, <literal>escape</>.
</entry>
<entry><literal>encode( '123\\000\\001', 'base64')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MTIzAAE=</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>initcap</function>(<type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Convert the first letter of each word to uppercase and the
rest to lowercase. Words are sequences of alphanumeric
characters separated by non-alphanumeric characters.
</entry>
<entry><literal>initcap('hi THOMAS')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>Hi Thomas</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>length</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>
Number of characters in <parameter>string</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>length('jose')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>4</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>lpad</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>length</parameter> <type>int</type>
<optional>, <parameter>fill</parameter> <type>text</type></optional>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Fill up the <parameter>string</parameter> to length
<parameter>length</parameter> by prepending the characters
<parameter>fill</parameter> (a space by default). If the
<parameter>string</parameter> is already longer than
<parameter>length</parameter> then it is truncated (on the
right).
</entry>
<entry><literal>lpad('hi', 5, 'xy')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>xyxhi</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>ltrim</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>
<optional>, <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type></optional>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Remove the longest string containing only characters from
<parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default) from the start of
<parameter>string</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>ltrim('zzzytrim', 'xyz')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>trim</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>md5</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Calculates the MD5 hash of <parameter>string</parameter>,
returning the result in hexadecimal
</entry>
<entry><literal>md5('abc')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>900150983cd24fb0 d6963f7d28e17f72</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_client_encoding</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry>
Current client encoding name
</entry>
<entry><literal>pg_client_encoding()</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SQL_ASCII</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>quote_ident</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> text)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Return the given string suitably quoted to be used as an identifier
in an <acronym>SQL</acronym> statement string.
Quotes are added only if necessary (i.e., if the string contains
non-identifier characters or would be case-folded).
Embedded quotes are properly doubled.
</entry>
<entry><literal>quote_ident('Foo bar')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>"Foo bar"</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>quote_literal</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> text)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Return the given string suitably quoted to be used as a string literal
in an <acronym>SQL</acronym> statement string.
Embedded quotes and backslashes are properly doubled.
</entry>
<entry><literal>quote_literal( 'O\'Reilly')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'O''Reilly'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>repeat</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>, <parameter>number</parameter> <type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Repeat <parameter>string</parameter> the specified
<parameter>number</parameter> of times</entry>
<entry><literal>repeat('Pg', 4)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>PgPgPgPg</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>replace</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>from</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>to</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Replace all occurrences in <parameter>string</parameter> of substring
<parameter>from</parameter> with substring <parameter>to</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>replace( 'abcdefabcdef', 'cd', 'XX')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>abXXefabXXef</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>rpad</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>length</parameter> <type>int</type>
<optional>, <parameter>fill</parameter> <type>text</type></optional>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Fill up the <parameter>string</parameter> to length
<parameter>length</parameter> by appending the characters
<parameter>fill</parameter> (a space by default). If the
<parameter>string</parameter> is already longer than
<parameter>length</parameter> then it is truncated.
</entry>
<entry><literal>rpad('hi', 5, 'xy')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>hixyx</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>rtrim</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>
<optional>, <parameter>characters</parameter> <type>text</type></optional>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Remove the longest string containing only characters from
<parameter>characters</parameter> (a space by default) from the end of
<parameter>string</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>rtrim('trimxxxx', 'x')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>trim</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>split_part</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>delimiter</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>field</parameter> <type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Split <parameter>string</parameter> on <parameter>delimiter</parameter>
and return the given field (counting from one)
</entry>
<entry><literal>split_part('abc~@~def~@~ghi', '~@~', 2)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>def</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>strpos</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>, <parameter>substring</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>
Location of specified substring (same as
<literal>position(<parameter>substring</parameter> in
<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal>, but note the reversed
argument order)
</entry>
<entry><literal>strpos('high', 'ig')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>2</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>substr</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>, <parameter>from</parameter> <optional>, <parameter>count</parameter></optional>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Extract substring (same as
<literal>substring(<parameter>string</parameter> from <parameter>from</parameter> for <parameter>count</parameter>)</literal>)
</entry>
<entry><literal>substr('alphabet', 3, 2)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ph</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_ascii</function>(<type>text</type>
<optional>, <parameter>encoding</parameter></optional>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Convert <parameter>text</parameter> to <acronym>ASCII</acronym> from another encoding
<footnote>
<para>
The <function>to_ascii</function> function supports conversion from
<literal>LATIN1</>, <literal>LATIN2</>, <literal>LATIN9</>,
and <literal>WIN1250</> encodings only.
</para>
</footnote>
</entry>
<entry><literal>to_ascii('Karel')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>Karel</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_hex</function>(<parameter>number</parameter> <type>int</type>
or <type>bigint</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Convert <parameter>number</parameter> to its equivalent hexadecimal
representation
</entry>
<entry><literal>to_hex(2147483647)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>7fffffff</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>translate</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>
<type>text</type>,
<parameter>from</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>to</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Any character in <parameter>string</parameter> that matches a
character in the <parameter>from</parameter> set is replaced by
the corresponding character in the <parameter>to</parameter>
set
</entry>
<entry><literal>translate('12345', '14', 'ax')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>a23x5</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table id="conversion-names">
<title>Built-in Conversions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Conversion Name
<footnote>
<para>
The conversion names follow a standard naming scheme: The
official name of the source encoding with all
non-alphanumeric characters replaced by underscores followed
by <literal>_to_</literal> followed by the equally processed
destination encoding name. Therefore the names might deviate
from the customary encoding names.
</para>
</footnote>
</entry>
<entry>Source Encoding</entry>
<entry>Destination Encoding</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal>ascii_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SQL_ASCII</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>ascii_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SQL_ASCII</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>big5_to_euc_tw</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>BIG5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_TW</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>big5_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>BIG5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>big5_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>BIG5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_cn_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_CN</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_cn_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_CN</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_jp_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_JP</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_jp_to_sjis</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_JP</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SJIS</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_jp_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_JP</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_kr_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_KR</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_kr_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_KR</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_tw_to_big5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_TW</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>BIG5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_tw_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_TW</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>euc_tw_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_TW</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>gb18030_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>GB18030</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>gbk_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>GBK</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_10_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN6</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_13_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN7</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_14_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_15_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN9</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_16_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN10</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_1_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN1</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_1_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN1</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_2_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_2_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_2_to_windows_1250</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1250</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_3_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_3_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_4_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN4</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_4_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN4</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_5_to_koi8_r</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_5_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_5_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_5_to_windows_1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_5_to_windows_866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_6_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_6</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_7_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_7</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_8_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>iso_8859_9_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>johab_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>JOHAB</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>koi8_r_to_iso_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>koi8_r_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>koi8_r_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>koi8_r_to_windows_1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>koi8_r_to_windows_866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_ascii</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SQL_ASCII</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_big5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>BIG5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_euc_cn</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_CN</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_euc_jp</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_JP</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_euc_kr</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_KR</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_euc_tw</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_TW</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_iso_8859_1</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_iso_8859_2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN2</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_iso_8859_3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_iso_8859_4</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN4</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_iso_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_koi8_r</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_sjis</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SJIS</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_windows_1250</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1250</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_windows_1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mic_to_windows_866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>sjis_to_euc_jp</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SJIS</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_JP</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>sjis_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SJIS</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>sjis_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SJIS</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>tcvn_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1258</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>uhc_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UHC</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_ascii</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SQL_ASCII</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_big5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>BIG5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_euc_cn</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_CN</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_euc_jp</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_JP</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_euc_kr</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_KR</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_euc_tw</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>EUC_TW</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_gb18030</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>GB18030</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_gbk</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>GBK</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_1</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_10</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN6</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_13</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN7</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_14</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_15</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN9</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_16</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN10</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN2</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_4</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN4</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_6</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_6</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_7</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_7</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_iso_8859_9</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_johab</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>JOHAB</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_koi8_r</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_sjis</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>SJIS</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_tcvn</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1258</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_uhc</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UHC</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_windows_1250</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1250</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_windows_1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_windows_1252</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1252</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_windows_1256</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1256</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_windows_866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>utf8_to_windows_874</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN874</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1250_to_iso_8859_2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1250</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>LATIN2</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1250_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1250</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1250_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1250</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1251_to_iso_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1251_to_koi8_r</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1251_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1251_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1251_to_windows_866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1252_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1252</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_1256_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN1256</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_866_to_iso_8859_5</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>ISO_8859_5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_866_to_koi8_r</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>KOI8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_866_to_mic</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>MULE_INTERNAL</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_866_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_866_to_windows_1251</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN866</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>windows_874_to_utf8</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>WIN874</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>UTF8</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-binarystring">
<title>Binary String Functions and Operators</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-binarystring">
<primary>binary data</primary>
<secondary>functions</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
This section describes functions and operators for examining and
manipulating values of type <type>bytea</type>.
</para>
<para>
<acronym>SQL</acronym> defines some string functions with a
special syntax where
certain key words rather than commas are used to separate the
arguments. Details are in
<xref linkend="functions-binarystring-sql">.
Some functions are also implemented using the regular syntax for
function invocation.
(See <xref linkend="functions-binarystring-other">.)
</para>
<table id="functions-binarystring-sql">
<title><acronym>SQL</acronym> Binary String Functions and Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><parameter>string</parameter> <literal>||</literal>
<parameter>string</parameter></literal></entry>
<entry> <type>bytea</type> </entry>
<entry>
String concatenation
<indexterm>
<primary>binary string</primary>
<secondary>concatenation</secondary>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>'\\\\Post'::bytea || '\\047gres\\000'::bytea</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>\\Post'gres\000</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>octet_length</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>Number of bytes in binary string</entry>
<entry><literal>octet_length( 'jo\\000se'::bytea)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>position</function>(<parameter>substring</parameter> in <parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>Location of specified substring</entry>
<entry><literal>position('\\000om'::bytea in 'Th\\000omas'::bytea)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>substring</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <optional>from <type>int</type></optional> <optional>for <type>int</type></optional>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry>
Extract substring
<indexterm>
<primary>substring</primary>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>substring('Th\\000omas'::bytea from 2 for 3)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>h\000o</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>trim</function>(<optional>both</optional>
<parameter>bytes</parameter> from
<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry>
Remove the longest string containing only the bytes in
<parameter>bytes</parameter> from the start
and end of <parameter>string</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>trim('\\000'::bytea from '\\000Tom\\000'::bytea)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>Tom</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>get_byte</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>, <parameter>offset</parameter>)</entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>
Extract byte from string
<indexterm>
<primary>get_byte</primary>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>get_byte('Th\\000omas'::bytea, 4)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>109</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>set_byte</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>,
<parameter>offset</parameter>, <parameter>newvalue</>)</entry>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry>
Set byte in string
<indexterm>
<primary>set_byte</primary>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>set_byte('Th\\000omas'::bytea, 4, 64)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>Th\000o@as</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>get_bit</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>, <parameter>offset</parameter>)</entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>
Extract bit from string
<indexterm>
<primary>get_bit</primary>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>get_bit('Th\\000omas'::bytea, 45)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>set_bit</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>,
<parameter>offset</parameter>, <parameter>newvalue</>)</entry>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry>
Set bit in string
<indexterm>
<primary>set_bit</primary>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>set_bit('Th\\000omas'::bytea, 45, 0)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>Th\000omAs</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Additional binary string manipulation functions are available and
are listed in <xref linkend="functions-binarystring-other">. Some
of them are used internally to implement the
<acronym>SQL</acronym>-standard string functions listed in <xref
linkend="functions-binarystring-sql">.
</para>
<table id="functions-binarystring-other">
<title>Other Binary String Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>btrim</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>
<type>bytea</type>, <parameter>bytes</parameter> <type>bytea</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry>
Remove the longest string consisting only of bytes
in <parameter>bytes</parameter> from the start and end of
<parameter>string</parameter>
</entry>
<entry><literal>btrim('\\000trim\\000'::bytea, '\\000'::bytea)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>trim</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>length</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>
Length of binary string
<indexterm>
<primary>binary string</primary>
<secondary>length</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>length</primary>
<secondary sortas="binary string">of a binary string</secondary>
<see>binary strings, length</see>
</indexterm>
</entry>
<entry><literal>length('jo\\000se'::bytea)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>md5</function>(<parameter>string</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Calculates the MD5 hash of <parameter>string</parameter>,
returning the result in hexadecimal
</entry>
<entry><literal>md5('Th\\000omas'::bytea)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>8ab2d3c9689aaf18 b4958c334c82d8b1</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>decode</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>text</type>,
<parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bytea</type></entry>
<entry>
Decode binary string from <parameter>string</parameter> previously
encoded with <literal>encode</>. Parameter type is same as in <literal>encode</>.
</entry>
<entry><literal>decode('123\\000456', 'escape')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>123\000456</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>encode</function>(<parameter>string</parameter> <type>bytea</type>,
<parameter>type</parameter> <type>text</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>
Encode binary string to <acronym>ASCII</acronym>-only representation. Supported
types are: <literal>base64</>, <literal>hex</>, <literal>escape</>.
</entry>
<entry><literal>encode('123\\000456'::bytea, 'escape')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>123\000456</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-bitstring">
<title>Bit String Functions and Operators</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-bitstring">
<primary>bit strings</primary>
<secondary>functions</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
This section describes functions and operators for examining and
manipulating bit strings, that is values of the types
<type>bit</type> and <type>bit varying</type>. Aside from the
usual comparison operators, the operators
shown in <xref linkend="functions-bit-string-op-table"> can be used.
Bit string operands of <literal>&amp;</literal>, <literal>|</literal>,
and <literal>#</literal> must be of equal length. When bit
shifting, the original length of the string is preserved, as shown
in the examples.
</para>
<table id="functions-bit-string-op-table">
<title>Bit String Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>||</literal> </entry>
<entry>concatenation</entry>
<entry><literal>B'10001' || B'011'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>10001011</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&amp;</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise AND</entry>
<entry><literal>B'10001' &amp; B'01101'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>00001</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>|</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise OR</entry>
<entry><literal>B'10001' | B'01101'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>11101</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>#</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise XOR</entry>
<entry><literal>B'10001' # B'01101'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>11100</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>~</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise NOT</entry>
<entry><literal>~ B'10001'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>01110</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise shift left</entry>
<entry><literal>B'10001' &lt;&lt; 3</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>01000</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise shift right</entry>
<entry><literal>B'10001' &gt;&gt; 2</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>00100</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The following <acronym>SQL</acronym>-standard functions work on bit
strings as well as character strings:
<literal><function>length</function></literal>,
<literal><function>bit_length</function></literal>,
<literal><function>octet_length</function></literal>,
<literal><function>position</function></literal>,
<literal><function>substring</function></literal>.
</para>
<para>
In addition, it is possible to cast integral values to and from type
<type>bit</>.
Some examples:
<programlisting>
44::bit(10) <lineannotation>0000101100</lineannotation>
44::bit(3) <lineannotation>100</lineannotation>
cast(-44 as bit(12)) <lineannotation>111111010100</lineannotation>
'1110'::bit(4)::integer <lineannotation>14</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
Note that casting to just <quote>bit</> means casting to
<literal>bit(1)</>, and so it will deliver only the least significant
bit of the integer.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Prior to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 8.0, casting an
integer to <type>bit(n)</> would copy the leftmost <literal>n</>
bits of the integer, whereas now it copies the rightmost <literal>n</>
bits. Also, casting an integer to a bit string width wider than
the integer itself will sign-extend on the left.
</para>
</note>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-matching">
<title>Pattern Matching</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-matching">
<primary>pattern matching</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
There are three separate approaches to pattern matching provided
by <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>: the traditional
<acronym>SQL</acronym> <function>LIKE</function> operator, the
more recent <function>SIMILAR TO</function> operator (added in
SQL:1999), and <acronym>POSIX</acronym>-style regular
expressions.
Additionally, a pattern matching function,
<function>substring</function>, is available, using either
<function>SIMILAR TO</function>-style or POSIX-style regular
expressions.
</para>
<tip>
<para>
If you have pattern matching needs that go beyond this,
consider writing a user-defined function in Perl or Tcl.
</para>
</tip>
<sect2 id="functions-like">
<title><function>LIKE</function></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>LIKE</primary>
</indexterm>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>string</replaceable> LIKE <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional>
<replaceable>string</replaceable> NOT LIKE <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional>
</synopsis>
<para>
Every <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> defines a set of strings.
The <function>LIKE</function> expression returns true if the
<replaceable>string</replaceable> is contained in the set of
strings represented by <replaceable>pattern</replaceable>. (As
expected, the <function>NOT LIKE</function> expression returns
false if <function>LIKE</function> returns true, and vice versa.
An equivalent expression is
<literal>NOT (<replaceable>string</replaceable> LIKE
<replaceable>pattern</replaceable>)</literal>.)
</para>
<para>
If <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> does not contain percent
signs or underscore, then the pattern only represents the string
itself; in that case <function>LIKE</function> acts like the
equals operator. An underscore (<literal>_</literal>) in
<replaceable>pattern</replaceable> stands for (matches) any single
character; a percent sign (<literal>%</literal>) matches any string
of zero or more characters.
</para>
<para>
Some examples:
<programlisting>
'abc' LIKE 'abc' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' LIKE 'a%' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' LIKE '_b_' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' LIKE 'c' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<function>LIKE</function> pattern matches always cover the entire
string. To match a sequence anywhere within a string, the
pattern must therefore start and end with a percent sign.
</para>
<para>
To match a literal underscore or percent sign without matching
other characters, the respective character in
<replaceable>pattern</replaceable> must be
preceded by the escape character. The default escape
character is the backslash but a different one may be selected by
using the <literal>ESCAPE</literal> clause. To match the escape
character itself, write two escape characters.
</para>
<para>
Note that the backslash already has a special meaning in string
literals, so to write a pattern constant that contains a backslash
you must write two backslashes in an SQL statement. Thus, writing a pattern
that actually matches a literal backslash means writing four backslashes
in the statement. You can avoid this by selecting a different escape
character with <literal>ESCAPE</literal>; then a backslash is not special
to <function>LIKE</function> anymore. (But it is still special to the string
literal parser, so you still need two of them.)
</para>
<para>
It's also possible to select no escape character by writing
<literal>ESCAPE ''</literal>. This effectively disables the
escape mechanism, which makes it impossible to turn off the
special meaning of underscore and percent signs in the pattern.
</para>
<para>
The key word <token>ILIKE</token> can be used instead of
<token>LIKE</token> to make the match case-insensitive according
to the active locale. This is not in the <acronym>SQL</acronym> standard but is a
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> extension.
</para>
<para>
The operator <literal>~~</literal> is equivalent to
<function>LIKE</function>, and <literal>~~*</literal> corresponds to
<function>ILIKE</function>. There are also
<literal>!~~</literal> and <literal>!~~*</literal> operators that
represent <function>NOT LIKE</function> and <function>NOT
ILIKE</function>, respectively. All of these operators are
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname>-specific.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="functions-similarto-regexp">
<title><function>SIMILAR TO</function> Regular Expressions</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>regular expression</primary>
<!-- <seealso>pattern matching</seealso> breaks index build -->
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>SIMILAR TO</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>substring</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>regexp_replace</primary>
</indexterm>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>string</replaceable> SIMILAR TO <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional>
<replaceable>string</replaceable> NOT SIMILAR TO <replaceable>pattern</replaceable> <optional>ESCAPE <replaceable>escape-character</replaceable></optional>
</synopsis>
<para>
The <function>SIMILAR TO</function> operator returns true or
false depending on whether its pattern matches the given string.
It is much like <function>LIKE</function>, except that it
interprets the pattern using the SQL standard's definition of a
regular expression. SQL regular expressions are a curious cross
between <function>LIKE</function> notation and common regular
expression notation.
</para>
<para>
Like <function>LIKE</function>, the <function>SIMILAR TO</function>
operator succeeds only if its pattern matches the entire string;
this is unlike common regular expression practice, wherein the pattern
may match any part of the string.
Also like
<function>LIKE</function>, <function>SIMILAR TO</function> uses
<literal>_</> and <literal>%</> as wildcard characters denoting
any single character and any string, respectively (these are
comparable to <literal>.</> and <literal>.*</> in POSIX regular
expressions).
</para>
<para>
In addition to these facilities borrowed from <function>LIKE</function>,
<function>SIMILAR TO</function> supports these pattern-matching
metacharacters borrowed from POSIX regular expressions:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>|</literal> denotes alternation (either of two alternatives).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>*</literal> denotes repetition of the previous item zero
or more times.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>+</literal> denotes repetition of the previous item one
or more times.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Parentheses <literal>()</literal> may be used to group items into
a single logical item.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
A bracket expression <literal>[...]</literal> specifies a character
class, just as in POSIX regular expressions.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
Notice that bounded repetition (<literal>?</> and <literal>{...}</>)
are not provided, though they exist in POSIX. Also, the dot (<literal>.</>)
is not a metacharacter.
</para>
<para>
As with <function>LIKE</>, a backslash disables the special meaning
of any of these metacharacters; or a different escape character can
be specified with <literal>ESCAPE</>.
</para>
<para>
Some examples:
<programlisting>
'abc' SIMILAR TO 'abc' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' SIMILAR TO 'a' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation>
'abc' SIMILAR TO '%(b|d)%' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' SIMILAR TO '(b|c)%' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
The <function>substring</> function with three parameters,
<function>substring(<replaceable>string</replaceable> from
<replaceable>pattern</replaceable> for
<replaceable>escape-character</replaceable>)</function>, provides
extraction of a substring that matches an SQL
regular expression pattern. As with <literal>SIMILAR TO</>, the
specified pattern must match to the entire data string, else the
function fails and returns null. To indicate the part of the
pattern that should be returned on success, the pattern must contain
two occurrences of the escape character followed by a double quote
(<literal>"</>). The text matching the portion of the pattern
between these markers is returned.
</para>
<para>
Some examples:
<programlisting>
substring('foobar' from '%#"o_b#"%' for '#') <lineannotation>oob</lineannotation>
substring('foobar' from '#"o_b#"%' for '#') <lineannotation>NULL</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="functions-posix-regexp">
<title><acronym>POSIX</acronym> Regular Expressions</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-posix-regexp">
<primary>regular expression</primary>
<seealso>pattern matching</seealso>
</indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-posix-table"> lists the available
operators for pattern matching using POSIX regular expressions.
</para>
<table id="functions-posix-table">
<title>Regular Expression Match Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>~</literal> </entry>
<entry>Matches regular expression, case sensitive</entry>
<entry><literal>'thomas' ~ '.*thomas.*'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>~*</literal> </entry>
<entry>Matches regular expression, case insensitive</entry>
<entry><literal>'thomas' ~* '.*Thomas.*'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>!~</literal> </entry>
<entry>Does not match regular expression, case sensitive</entry>
<entry><literal>'thomas' !~ '.*Thomas.*'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>!~*</literal> </entry>
<entry>Does not match regular expression, case insensitive</entry>
<entry><literal>'thomas' !~* '.*vadim.*'</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
<acronym>POSIX</acronym> regular expressions provide a more
powerful means for
pattern matching than the <function>LIKE</function> and
<function>SIMILAR TO</> operators.
Many Unix tools such as <command>egrep</command>,
<command>sed</command>, or <command>awk</command> use a pattern
matching language that is similar to the one described here.
</para>
<para>
A regular expression is a character sequence that is an
abbreviated definition of a set of strings (a <firstterm>regular
set</firstterm>). A string is said to match a regular expression
if it is a member of the regular set described by the regular
expression. As with <function>LIKE</function>, pattern characters
match string characters exactly unless they are special characters
in the regular expression language &mdash; but regular expressions use
different special characters than <function>LIKE</function> does.
Unlike <function>LIKE</function> patterns, a
regular expression is allowed to match anywhere within a string, unless
the regular expression is explicitly anchored to the beginning or
end of the string.
</para>
<para>
Some examples:
<programlisting>
'abc' ~ 'abc' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' ~ '^a' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' ~ '(b|d)' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
'abc' ~ '^(b|c)' <lineannotation>false</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
The <function>substring</> function with two parameters,
<function>substring(<replaceable>string</replaceable> from
<replaceable>pattern</replaceable>)</function>, provides extraction of a
substring
that matches a POSIX regular expression pattern. It returns null if
there is no match, otherwise the portion of the text that matched the
pattern. But if the pattern contains any parentheses, the portion
of the text that matched the first parenthesized subexpression (the
one whose left parenthesis comes first) is
returned. You can put parentheses around the whole expression
if you want to use parentheses within it without triggering this
exception. If you need parentheses in the pattern before the
subexpression you want to extract, see the non-capturing parentheses
described below.
</para>
<para>
Some examples:
<programlisting>
substring('foobar' from 'o.b') <lineannotation>oob</lineannotation>
substring('foobar' from 'o(.)b') <lineannotation>o</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
The <function>regexp_replace</> function provides substitution of
new text for substrings that match POSIX regular expression patterns.
It has the syntax
<function>regexp_replace</function>(<replaceable>source</>,
<replaceable>pattern</>, <replaceable>replacement</>
<optional>, <replaceable>flags</> </optional>).
The <replaceable>source</> string is returned unchanged if
there is no match to the <replaceable>pattern</>. If there is a
match, the <replaceable>source</> string is returned with the
<replaceable>replacement</> string substituted for the matching
substring. The <replaceable>replacement</> string can contain
<literal>\</><replaceable>n</>, where <replaceable>n</> is <literal>1</>
through <literal>9</>, to indicate that the source substring matching the
<replaceable>n</>'th parenthesized subexpression of the pattern should be
inserted, and it can contain <literal>\&amp;</> to indicate that the
substring matching the entire pattern should be inserted. Write
<literal>\\</> if you need to put a literal backslash in the replacement
text. (As always, remember to double backslashes written in literal
constant strings.)
The <replaceable>flags</> parameter is an optional text
string containing zero or more single-letter flags that change the
function's behavior. Flag <literal>i</> specifies case-insensitive
matching, while flag <literal>g</> specifies replacement of each matching
substring rather than only the first one.
</para>
<para>
Some examples:
<programlisting>
regexp_replace('foobarbaz', 'b..', 'X')
<lineannotation>fooXbaz</lineannotation>
regexp_replace('foobarbaz', 'b..', 'X', 'g')
<lineannotation>fooXX</lineannotation>
regexp_replace('foobarbaz', 'b(..)', 'X\\1Y', 'g')
<lineannotation>fooXarYXazY</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s regular expressions are implemented
using a package written by Henry Spencer. Much of
the description of regular expressions below is copied verbatim from his
manual entry.
</para>
<!-- derived from the re_syntax.n man page -->
<sect3 id="posix-syntax-details">
<title>Regular Expression Details</title>
<para>
Regular expressions (<acronym>RE</acronym>s), as defined in
<acronym>POSIX</acronym> 1003.2, come in two forms:
<firstterm>extended</> <acronym>RE</acronym>s or <acronym>ERE</>s
(roughly those of <command>egrep</command>), and
<firstterm>basic</> <acronym>RE</acronym>s or <acronym>BRE</>s
(roughly those of <command>ed</command>).
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> supports both forms, and
also implements some extensions
that are not in the POSIX standard, but have become widely used anyway
due to their availability in programming languages such as Perl and Tcl.
<acronym>RE</acronym>s using these non-POSIX extensions are called
<firstterm>advanced</> <acronym>RE</acronym>s or <acronym>ARE</>s
in this documentation. AREs are almost an exact superset of EREs,
but BREs have several notational incompatibilities (as well as being
much more limited).
We first describe the ARE and ERE forms, noting features that apply
only to AREs, and then describe how BREs differ.
</para>
<note>
<para>
The form of regular expressions accepted by
<productname>PostgreSQL</> can be chosen by setting the <xref
linkend="guc-regex-flavor"> run-time parameter. The usual
setting is <literal>advanced</>, but one might choose
<literal>extended</> for maximum backwards compatibility with
pre-7.4 releases of <productname>PostgreSQL</>.
</para>
</note>
<para>
A regular expression is defined as one or more
<firstterm>branches</firstterm>, separated by
<literal>|</literal>. It matches anything that matches one of the
branches.
</para>
<para>
A branch is zero or more <firstterm>quantified atoms</> or
<firstterm>constraints</>, concatenated.
It matches a match for the first, followed by a match for the second, etc;
an empty branch matches the empty string.
</para>
<para>
A quantified atom is an <firstterm>atom</> possibly followed
by a single <firstterm>quantifier</>.
Without a quantifier, it matches a match for the atom.
With a quantifier, it can match some number of matches of the atom.
An <firstterm>atom</firstterm> can be any of the possibilities
shown in <xref linkend="posix-atoms-table">.
The possible quantifiers and their meanings are shown in
<xref linkend="posix-quantifiers-table">.
</para>
<para>
A <firstterm>constraint</> matches an empty string, but matches only when
specific conditions are met. A constraint can be used where an atom
could be used, except it may not be followed by a quantifier.
The simple constraints are shown in
<xref linkend="posix-constraints-table">;
some more constraints are described later.
</para>
<table id="posix-atoms-table">
<title>Regular Expression Atoms</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Atom</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>(</><replaceable>re</><literal>)</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>re</> is any regular expression)
matches a match for
<replaceable>re</>, with the match noted for possible reporting </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>(?:</><replaceable>re</><literal>)</> </entry>
<entry> as above, but the match is not noted for reporting
(a <quote>non-capturing</> set of parentheses)
(AREs only) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>.</> </entry>
<entry> matches any single character </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>[</><replaceable>chars</><literal>]</> </entry>
<entry> a <firstterm>bracket expression</>,
matching any one of the <replaceable>chars</> (see
<xref linkend="posix-bracket-expressions"> for more detail) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\</><replaceable>k</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>k</> is a non-alphanumeric character)
matches that character taken as an ordinary character,
e.g. <literal>\\</> matches a backslash character </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\</><replaceable>c</> </entry>
<entry> where <replaceable>c</> is alphanumeric
(possibly followed by other characters)
is an <firstterm>escape</>, see <xref linkend="posix-escape-sequences">
(AREs only; in EREs and BREs, this matches <replaceable>c</>) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>{</> </entry>
<entry> when followed by a character other than a digit,
matches the left-brace character <literal>{</>;
when followed by a digit, it is the beginning of a
<replaceable>bound</> (see below) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <replaceable>x</> </entry>
<entry> where <replaceable>x</> is a single character with no other
significance, matches that character </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
An RE may not end with <literal>\</>.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Remember that the backslash (<literal>\</literal>) already has a special
meaning in <productname>PostgreSQL</> string literals.
To write a pattern constant that contains a backslash,
you must write two backslashes in the statement.
</para>
</note>
<table id="posix-quantifiers-table">
<title>Regular Expression Quantifiers</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Quantifier</entry>
<entry>Matches</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>*</> </entry>
<entry> a sequence of 0 or more matches of the atom </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</> </entry>
<entry> a sequence of 1 or more matches of the atom </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?</> </entry>
<entry> a sequence of 0 or 1 matches of the atom </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>}</> </entry>
<entry> a sequence of exactly <replaceable>m</> matches of the atom </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,}</> </entry>
<entry> a sequence of <replaceable>m</> or more matches of the atom </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,</><replaceable>n</><literal>}</> </entry>
<entry> a sequence of <replaceable>m</> through <replaceable>n</>
(inclusive) matches of the atom; <replaceable>m</> may not exceed
<replaceable>n</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>*?</> </entry>
<entry> non-greedy version of <literal>*</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+?</> </entry>
<entry> non-greedy version of <literal>+</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>??</> </entry>
<entry> non-greedy version of <literal>?</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>}?</> </entry>
<entry> non-greedy version of <literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>}</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,}?</> </entry>
<entry> non-greedy version of <literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,}</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,</><replaceable>n</><literal>}?</> </entry>
<entry> non-greedy version of <literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,</><replaceable>n</><literal>}</> </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The forms using <literal>{</><replaceable>...</><literal>}</>
are known as <firstterm>bounds</>.
The numbers <replaceable>m</> and <replaceable>n</> within a bound are
unsigned decimal integers with permissible values from 0 to 255 inclusive.
</para>
<para>
<firstterm>Non-greedy</> quantifiers (available in AREs only) match the
same possibilities as their corresponding normal (<firstterm>greedy</>)
counterparts, but prefer the smallest number rather than the largest
number of matches.
See <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"> for more detail.
</para>
<note>
<para>
A quantifier cannot immediately follow another quantifier.
A quantifier cannot
begin an expression or subexpression or follow
<literal>^</literal> or <literal>|</literal>.
</para>
</note>
<table id="posix-constraints-table">
<title>Regular Expression Constraints</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Constraint</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>^</> </entry>
<entry> matches at the beginning of the string </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>$</> </entry>
<entry> matches at the end of the string </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>(?=</><replaceable>re</><literal>)</> </entry>
<entry> <firstterm>positive lookahead</> matches at any point
where a substring matching <replaceable>re</> begins
(AREs only) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>(?!</><replaceable>re</><literal>)</> </entry>
<entry> <firstterm>negative lookahead</> matches at any point
where no substring matching <replaceable>re</> begins
(AREs only) </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Lookahead constraints may not contain <firstterm>back references</>
(see <xref linkend="posix-escape-sequences">),
and all parentheses within them are considered non-capturing.
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="posix-bracket-expressions">
<title>Bracket Expressions</title>
<para>
A <firstterm>bracket expression</firstterm> is a list of
characters enclosed in <literal>[]</literal>. It normally matches
any single character from the list (but see below). If the list
begins with <literal>^</literal>, it matches any single character
<emphasis>not</> from the rest of the list.
If two characters
in the list are separated by <literal>-</literal>, this is
shorthand for the full range of characters between those two
(inclusive) in the collating sequence,
e.g. <literal>[0-9]</literal> in <acronym>ASCII</acronym> matches
any decimal digit. It is illegal for two ranges to share an
endpoint, e.g. <literal>a-c-e</literal>. Ranges are very
collating-sequence-dependent, so portable programs should avoid
relying on them.
</para>
<para>
To include a literal <literal>]</literal> in the list, make it the
first character (following a possible <literal>^</literal>). To
include a literal <literal>-</literal>, make it the first or last
character, or the second endpoint of a range. To use a literal
<literal>-</literal> as the first endpoint of a range, enclose it
in <literal>[.</literal> and <literal>.]</literal> to make it a
collating element (see below). With the exception of these characters,
some combinations using <literal>[</literal>
(see next paragraphs), and escapes (AREs only), all other special
characters lose their special significance within a bracket expression.
In particular, <literal>\</literal> is not special when following
ERE or BRE rules, though it is special (as introducing an escape)
in AREs.
</para>
<para>
Within a bracket expression, a collating element (a character, a
multiple-character sequence that collates as if it were a single
character, or a collating-sequence name for either) enclosed in
<literal>[.</literal> and <literal>.]</literal> stands for the
sequence of characters of that collating element. The sequence is
a single element of the bracket expression's list. A bracket
expression containing a multiple-character collating element can thus
match more than one character, e.g. if the collating sequence
includes a <literal>ch</literal> collating element, then the RE
<literal>[[.ch.]]*c</literal> matches the first five characters of
<literal>chchcc</literal>.
</para>
<note>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</> currently has no multicharacter collating
elements. This information describes possible future behavior.
</para>
</note>
<para>
Within a bracket expression, a collating element enclosed in
<literal>[=</literal> and <literal>=]</literal> is an equivalence
class, standing for the sequences of characters of all collating
elements equivalent to that one, including itself. (If there are
no other equivalent collating elements, the treatment is as if the
enclosing delimiters were <literal>[.</literal> and
<literal>.]</literal>.) For example, if <literal>o</literal> and
<literal>^</literal> are the members of an equivalence class, then
<literal>[[=o=]]</literal>, <literal>[[=^=]]</literal>, and
<literal>[o^]</literal> are all synonymous. An equivalence class
may not be an endpoint of a range.
</para>
<para>
Within a bracket expression, the name of a character class
enclosed in <literal>[:</literal> and <literal>:]</literal> stands
for the list of all characters belonging to that class. Standard
character class names are: <literal>alnum</literal>,
<literal>alpha</literal>, <literal>blank</literal>,
<literal>cntrl</literal>, <literal>digit</literal>,
<literal>graph</literal>, <literal>lower</literal>,
<literal>print</literal>, <literal>punct</literal>,
<literal>space</literal>, <literal>upper</literal>,
<literal>xdigit</literal>. These stand for the character classes
defined in
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctype</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry>.
A locale may provide others. A character class may not be used as
an endpoint of a range.
</para>
<para>
There are two special cases of bracket expressions: the bracket
expressions <literal>[[:&lt;:]]</literal> and
<literal>[[:&gt;:]]</literal> are constraints,
matching empty strings at the beginning
and end of a word respectively. A word is defined as a sequence
of word characters that is neither preceded nor followed by word
characters. A word character is an <literal>alnum</> character (as
defined by
<citerefentry><refentrytitle>ctype</refentrytitle><manvolnum>3</manvolnum></citerefentry>)
or an underscore. This is an extension, compatible with but not
specified by <acronym>POSIX</acronym> 1003.2, and should be used with
caution in software intended to be portable to other systems.
The constraint escapes described below are usually preferable (they
are no more standard, but are certainly easier to type).
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="posix-escape-sequences">
<title>Regular Expression Escapes</title>
<para>
<firstterm>Escapes</> are special sequences beginning with <literal>\</>
followed by an alphanumeric character. Escapes come in several varieties:
character entry, class shorthands, constraint escapes, and back references.
A <literal>\</> followed by an alphanumeric character but not constituting
a valid escape is illegal in AREs.
In EREs, there are no escapes: outside a bracket expression,
a <literal>\</> followed by an alphanumeric character merely stands for
that character as an ordinary character, and inside a bracket expression,
<literal>\</> is an ordinary character.
(The latter is the one actual incompatibility between EREs and AREs.)
</para>
<para>
<firstterm>Character-entry escapes</> exist to make it easier to specify
non-printing and otherwise inconvenient characters in REs. They are
shown in <xref linkend="posix-character-entry-escapes-table">.
</para>
<para>
<firstterm>Class-shorthand escapes</> provide shorthands for certain
commonly-used character classes. They are
shown in <xref linkend="posix-class-shorthand-escapes-table">.
</para>
<para>
A <firstterm>constraint escape</> is a constraint,
matching the empty string if specific conditions are met,
written as an escape. They are
shown in <xref linkend="posix-constraint-escapes-table">.
</para>
<para>
A <firstterm>back reference</> (<literal>\</><replaceable>n</>) matches the
same string matched by the previous parenthesized subexpression specified
by the number <replaceable>n</>
(see <xref linkend="posix-constraint-backref-table">). For example,
<literal>([bc])\1</> matches <literal>bb</> or <literal>cc</>
but not <literal>bc</> or <literal>cb</>.
The subexpression must entirely precede the back reference in the RE.
Subexpressions are numbered in the order of their leading parentheses.
Non-capturing parentheses do not define subexpressions.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Keep in mind that an escape's leading <literal>\</> will need to be
doubled when entering the pattern as an SQL string constant. For example:
<programlisting>
'123' ~ '^\\d{3}' <lineannotation>true</lineannotation>
</programlisting>
</para>
</note>
<table id="posix-character-entry-escapes-table">
<title>Regular Expression Character-Entry Escapes</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Escape</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\a</> </entry>
<entry> alert (bell) character, as in C </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\b</> </entry>
<entry> backspace, as in C </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\B</> </entry>
<entry> synonym for <literal>\</> to help reduce the need for backslash
doubling </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\c</><replaceable>X</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>X</> is any character) the character whose
low-order 5 bits are the same as those of
<replaceable>X</>, and whose other bits are all zero </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\e</> </entry>
<entry> the character whose collating-sequence name
is <literal>ESC</>,
or failing that, the character with octal value 033 </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\f</> </entry>
<entry> form feed, as in C </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\n</> </entry>
<entry> newline, as in C </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\r</> </entry>
<entry> carriage return, as in C </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\t</> </entry>
<entry> horizontal tab, as in C </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\u</><replaceable>wxyz</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>wxyz</> is exactly four hexadecimal digits)
the UTF16 (Unicode, 16-bit) character <literal>U+</><replaceable>wxyz</>
in the local byte ordering </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\U</><replaceable>stuvwxyz</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>stuvwxyz</> is exactly eight hexadecimal
digits)
reserved for a somewhat-hypothetical Unicode extension to 32 bits
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\v</> </entry>
<entry> vertical tab, as in C </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\x</><replaceable>hhh</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>hhh</> is any sequence of hexadecimal
digits)
the character whose hexadecimal value is
<literal>0x</><replaceable>hhh</>
(a single character no matter how many hexadecimal digits are used)
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\0</> </entry>
<entry> the character whose value is <literal>0</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\</><replaceable>xy</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>xy</> is exactly two octal digits,
and is not a <firstterm>back reference</>)
the character whose octal value is
<literal>0</><replaceable>xy</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\</><replaceable>xyz</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>xyz</> is exactly three octal digits,
and is not a <firstterm>back reference</>)
the character whose octal value is
<literal>0</><replaceable>xyz</> </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Hexadecimal digits are <literal>0</>-<literal>9</>,
<literal>a</>-<literal>f</>, and <literal>A</>-<literal>F</>.
Octal digits are <literal>0</>-<literal>7</>.
</para>
<para>
The character-entry escapes are always taken as ordinary characters.
For example, <literal>\135</> is <literal>]</> in ASCII, but
<literal>\135</> does not terminate a bracket expression.
</para>
<table id="posix-class-shorthand-escapes-table">
<title>Regular Expression Class-Shorthand Escapes</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Escape</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\d</> </entry>
<entry> <literal>[[:digit:]]</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\s</> </entry>
<entry> <literal>[[:space:]]</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\w</> </entry>
<entry> <literal>[[:alnum:]_]</>
(note underscore is included) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\D</> </entry>
<entry> <literal>[^[:digit:]]</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\S</> </entry>
<entry> <literal>[^[:space:]]</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\W</> </entry>
<entry> <literal>[^[:alnum:]_]</>
(note underscore is included) </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Within bracket expressions, <literal>\d</>, <literal>\s</>,
and <literal>\w</> lose their outer brackets,
and <literal>\D</>, <literal>\S</>, and <literal>\W</> are illegal.
(So, for example, <literal>[a-c\d]</> is equivalent to
<literal>[a-c[:digit:]]</>.
Also, <literal>[a-c\D]</>, which is equivalent to
<literal>[a-c^[:digit:]]</>, is illegal.)
</para>
<table id="posix-constraint-escapes-table">
<title>Regular Expression Constraint Escapes</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Escape</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\A</> </entry>
<entry> matches only at the beginning of the string
(see <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"> for how this differs from
<literal>^</>) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\m</> </entry>
<entry> matches only at the beginning of a word </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\M</> </entry>
<entry> matches only at the end of a word </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\y</> </entry>
<entry> matches only at the beginning or end of a word </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\Y</> </entry>
<entry> matches only at a point that is not the beginning or end of a
word </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\Z</> </entry>
<entry> matches only at the end of the string
(see <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules"> for how this differs from
<literal>$</>) </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
A word is defined as in the specification of
<literal>[[:&lt;:]]</> and <literal>[[:&gt;:]]</> above.
Constraint escapes are illegal within bracket expressions.
</para>
<table id="posix-constraint-backref-table">
<title>Regular Expression Back References</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Escape</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\</><replaceable>m</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>m</> is a nonzero digit)
a back reference to the <replaceable>m</>'th subexpression </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>\</><replaceable>mnn</> </entry>
<entry> (where <replaceable>m</> is a nonzero digit, and
<replaceable>nn</> is some more digits, and the decimal value
<replaceable>mnn</> is not greater than the number of closing capturing
parentheses seen so far)
a back reference to the <replaceable>mnn</>'th subexpression </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<note>
<para>
There is an inherent historical ambiguity between octal character-entry
escapes and back references, which is resolved by heuristics,
as hinted at above.
A leading zero always indicates an octal escape.
A single non-zero digit, not followed by another digit,
is always taken as a back reference.
A multidigit sequence not starting with a zero is taken as a back
reference if it comes after a suitable subexpression
(i.e. the number is in the legal range for a back reference),
and otherwise is taken as octal.
</para>
</note>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="posix-metasyntax">
<title>Regular Expression Metasyntax</title>
<para>
In addition to the main syntax described above, there are some special
forms and miscellaneous syntactic facilities available.
</para>
<para>
Normally the flavor of RE being used is determined by
<varname>regex_flavor</>.
However, this can be overridden by a <firstterm>director</> prefix.
If an RE begins with <literal>***:</>,
the rest of the RE is taken as an ARE regardless of
<varname>regex_flavor</>.
If an RE begins with <literal>***=</>,
the rest of the RE is taken to be a literal string,
with all characters considered ordinary characters.
</para>
<para>
An ARE may begin with <firstterm>embedded options</>:
a sequence <literal>(?</><replaceable>xyz</><literal>)</>
(where <replaceable>xyz</> is one or more alphabetic characters)
specifies options affecting the rest of the RE.
These options override any previously determined options (including
both the RE flavor and case sensitivity).
The available option letters are
shown in <xref linkend="posix-embedded-options-table">.
</para>
<table id="posix-embedded-options-table">
<title>ARE Embedded-Option Letters</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Option</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>b</> </entry>
<entry> rest of RE is a BRE </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>c</> </entry>
<entry> case-sensitive matching (overrides operator type) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>e</> </entry>
<entry> rest of RE is an ERE </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>i</> </entry>
<entry> case-insensitive matching (see
<xref linkend="posix-matching-rules">) (overrides operator type) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>m</> </entry>
<entry> historical synonym for <literal>n</> </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>n</> </entry>
<entry> newline-sensitive matching (see
<xref linkend="posix-matching-rules">) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>p</> </entry>
<entry> partial newline-sensitive matching (see
<xref linkend="posix-matching-rules">) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>q</> </entry>
<entry> rest of RE is a literal (<quote>quoted</>) string, all ordinary
characters </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>s</> </entry>
<entry> non-newline-sensitive matching (default) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>t</> </entry>
<entry> tight syntax (default; see below) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>w</> </entry>
<entry> inverse partial newline-sensitive (<quote>weird</>) matching
(see <xref linkend="posix-matching-rules">) </entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>x</> </entry>
<entry> expanded syntax (see below) </entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Embedded options take effect at the <literal>)</> terminating the sequence.
They may appear only at the start of an ARE (after the
<literal>***:</> director if any).
</para>
<para>
In addition to the usual (<firstterm>tight</>) RE syntax, in which all
characters are significant, there is an <firstterm>expanded</> syntax,
available by specifying the embedded <literal>x</> option.
In the expanded syntax,
white-space characters in the RE are ignored, as are
all characters between a <literal>#</>
and the following newline (or the end of the RE). This
permits paragraphing and commenting a complex RE.
There are three exceptions to that basic rule:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
a white-space character or <literal>#</> preceded by <literal>\</> is
retained
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
white space or <literal>#</> within a bracket expression is retained
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
white space and comments cannot appear within multicharacter symbols,
such as <literal>(?:</>
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
For this purpose, white-space characters are blank, tab, newline, and
any character that belongs to the <replaceable>space</> character class.
</para>
<para>
Finally, in an ARE, outside bracket expressions, the sequence
<literal>(?#</><replaceable>ttt</><literal>)</>
(where <replaceable>ttt</> is any text not containing a <literal>)</>)
is a comment, completely ignored.
Again, this is not allowed between the characters of
multicharacter symbols, like <literal>(?:</>.
Such comments are more a historical artifact than a useful facility,
and their use is deprecated; use the expanded syntax instead.
</para>
<para>
<emphasis>None</> of these metasyntax extensions is available if
an initial <literal>***=</> director
has specified that the user's input be treated as a literal string
rather than as an RE.
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="posix-matching-rules">
<title>Regular Expression Matching Rules</title>
<para>
In the event that an RE could match more than one substring of a given
string, the RE matches the one starting earliest in the string.
If the RE could match more than one substring starting at that point,
either the longest possible match or the shortest possible match will
be taken, depending on whether the RE is <firstterm>greedy</> or
<firstterm>non-greedy</>.
</para>
<para>
Whether an RE is greedy or not is determined by the following rules:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
Most atoms, and all constraints, have no greediness attribute (because
they cannot match variable amounts of text anyway).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Adding parentheses around an RE does not change its greediness.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
A quantified atom with a fixed-repetition quantifier
(<literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>}</>
or
<literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>}?</>)
has the same greediness (possibly none) as the atom itself.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
A quantified atom with other normal quantifiers (including
<literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,</><replaceable>n</><literal>}</>
with <replaceable>m</> equal to <replaceable>n</>)
is greedy (prefers longest match).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
A quantified atom with a non-greedy quantifier (including
<literal>{</><replaceable>m</><literal>,</><replaceable>n</><literal>}?</>
with <replaceable>m</> equal to <replaceable>n</>)
is non-greedy (prefers shortest match).
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
A branch &mdash; that is, an RE that has no top-level
<literal>|</> operator &mdash; has the same greediness as the first
quantified atom in it that has a greediness attribute.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
An RE consisting of two or more branches connected by the
<literal>|</> operator is always greedy.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
The above rules associate greediness attributes not only with individual
quantified atoms, but with branches and entire REs that contain quantified
atoms. What that means is that the matching is done in such a way that
the branch, or whole RE, matches the longest or shortest possible
substring <emphasis>as a whole</>. Once the length of the entire match
is determined, the part of it that matches any particular subexpression
is determined on the basis of the greediness attribute of that
subexpression, with subexpressions starting earlier in the RE taking
priority over ones starting later.
</para>
<para>
An example of what this means:
<screen>
SELECT SUBSTRING('XY1234Z', 'Y*([0-9]{1,3})');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>123</computeroutput>
SELECT SUBSTRING('XY1234Z', 'Y*?([0-9]{1,3})');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>1</computeroutput>
</screen>
In the first case, the RE as a whole is greedy because <literal>Y*</>
is greedy. It can match beginning at the <literal>Y</>, and it matches
the longest possible string starting there, i.e., <literal>Y123</>.
The output is the parenthesized part of that, or <literal>123</>.
In the second case, the RE as a whole is non-greedy because <literal>Y*?</>
is non-greedy. It can match beginning at the <literal>Y</>, and it matches
the shortest possible string starting there, i.e., <literal>Y1</>.
The subexpression <literal>[0-9]{1,3}</> is greedy but it cannot change
the decision as to the overall match length; so it is forced to match
just <literal>1</>.
</para>
<para>
In short, when an RE contains both greedy and non-greedy subexpressions,
the total match length is either as long as possible or as short as
possible, according to the attribute assigned to the whole RE. The
attributes assigned to the subexpressions only affect how much of that
match they are allowed to <quote>eat</> relative to each other.
</para>
<para>
The quantifiers <literal>{1,1}</> and <literal>{1,1}?</>
can be used to force greediness or non-greediness, respectively,
on a subexpression or a whole RE.
</para>
<para>
Match lengths are measured in characters, not collating elements.
An empty string is considered longer than no match at all.
For example:
<literal>bb*</>
matches the three middle characters of <literal>abbbc</>;
<literal>(week|wee)(night|knights)</>
matches all ten characters of <literal>weeknights</>;
when <literal>(.*).*</>
is matched against <literal>abc</> the parenthesized subexpression
matches all three characters; and when
<literal>(a*)*</> is matched against <literal>bc</>
both the whole RE and the parenthesized
subexpression match an empty string.
</para>
<para>
If case-independent matching is specified,
the effect is much as if all case distinctions had vanished from the
alphabet.
When an alphabetic that exists in multiple cases appears as an
ordinary character outside a bracket expression, it is effectively
transformed into a bracket expression containing both cases,
e.g. <literal>x</> becomes <literal>[xX]</>.
When it appears inside a bracket expression, all case counterparts
of it are added to the bracket expression, e.g.
<literal>[x]</> becomes <literal>[xX]</>
and <literal>[^x]</> becomes <literal>[^xX]</>.
</para>
<para>
If newline-sensitive matching is specified, <literal>.</>
and bracket expressions using <literal>^</>
will never match the newline character
(so that matches will never cross newlines unless the RE
explicitly arranges it)
and <literal>^</>and <literal>$</>
will match the empty string after and before a newline
respectively, in addition to matching at beginning and end of string
respectively.
But the ARE escapes <literal>\A</> and <literal>\Z</>
continue to match beginning or end of string <emphasis>only</>.
</para>
<para>
If partial newline-sensitive matching is specified,
this affects <literal>.</> and bracket expressions
as with newline-sensitive matching, but not <literal>^</>
and <literal>$</>.
</para>
<para>
If inverse partial newline-sensitive matching is specified,
this affects <literal>^</> and <literal>$</>
as with newline-sensitive matching, but not <literal>.</>
and bracket expressions.
This isn't very useful but is provided for symmetry.
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="posix-limits-compatibility">
<title>Limits and Compatibility</title>
<para>
No particular limit is imposed on the length of REs in this
implementation. However,
programs intended to be highly portable should not employ REs longer
than 256 bytes,
as a POSIX-compliant implementation can refuse to accept such REs.
</para>
<para>
The only feature of AREs that is actually incompatible with
POSIX EREs is that <literal>\</> does not lose its special
significance inside bracket expressions.
All other ARE features use syntax which is illegal or has
undefined or unspecified effects in POSIX EREs;
the <literal>***</> syntax of directors likewise is outside the POSIX
syntax for both BREs and EREs.
</para>
<para>
Many of the ARE extensions are borrowed from Perl, but some have
been changed to clean them up, and a few Perl extensions are not present.
Incompatibilities of note include <literal>\b</>, <literal>\B</>,
the lack of special treatment for a trailing newline,
the addition of complemented bracket expressions to the things
affected by newline-sensitive matching,
the restrictions on parentheses and back references in lookahead
constraints, and the longest/shortest-match (rather than first-match)
matching semantics.
</para>
<para>
Two significant incompatibilities exist between AREs and the ERE syntax
recognized by pre-7.4 releases of <productname>PostgreSQL</>:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
In AREs, <literal>\</> followed by an alphanumeric character is either
an escape or an error, while in previous releases, it was just another
way of writing the alphanumeric.
This should not be much of a problem because there was no reason to
write such a sequence in earlier releases.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
In AREs, <literal>\</> remains a special character within
<literal>[]</>, so a literal <literal>\</> within a bracket
expression must be written <literal>\\</>.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
While these differences are unlikely to create a problem for most
applications, you can avoid them if necessary by
setting <varname>regex_flavor</> to <literal>extended</>.
</para>
</sect3>
<sect3 id="posix-basic-regexes">
<title>Basic Regular Expressions</title>
<para>
BREs differ from EREs in several respects.
<literal>|</>, <literal>+</>, and <literal>?</>
are ordinary characters and there is no equivalent
for their functionality.
The delimiters for bounds are
<literal>\{</> and <literal>\}</>,
with <literal>{</> and <literal>}</>
by themselves ordinary characters.
The parentheses for nested subexpressions are
<literal>\(</> and <literal>\)</>,
with <literal>(</> and <literal>)</> by themselves ordinary characters.
<literal>^</> is an ordinary character except at the beginning of the
RE or the beginning of a parenthesized subexpression,
<literal>$</> is an ordinary character except at the end of the
RE or the end of a parenthesized subexpression,
and <literal>*</> is an ordinary character if it appears at the beginning
of the RE or the beginning of a parenthesized subexpression
(after a possible leading <literal>^</>).
Finally, single-digit back references are available, and
<literal>\&lt;</> and <literal>\&gt;</>
are synonyms for
<literal>[[:&lt;:]]</> and <literal>[[:&gt;:]]</>
respectively; no other escapes are available.
</para>
</sect3>
<!-- end re_syntax.n man page -->
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-formatting">
<title>Data Type Formatting Functions</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>formatting</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>to_char</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>to_date</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>to_timestamp</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>to_number</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> formatting functions
provide a powerful set of tools for converting various data types
(date/time, integer, floating point, numeric) to formatted strings
and for converting from formatted strings to specific data types.
<xref linkend="functions-formatting-table"> lists them.
These functions all follow a common calling convention: the first
argument is the value to be formatted and the second argument is a
template that defines the output or input format.
</para>
<para>
The <function>to_timestamp</function> function can also take a single
<type>double precision</type> argument to convert from Unix epoch to
<type>timestamp with time zone</type>.
(<type>Integer</type> Unix epochs are implicitly cast to
<type>double precision</type>.)
</para>
<table id="functions-formatting-table">
<title>Formatting Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_char</function>(<type>timestamp</type>, <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>convert time stamp to string</entry>
<entry><literal>to_char(current_timestamp, 'HH12:MI:SS')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_char</function>(<type>interval</type>, <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>convert interval to string</entry>
<entry><literal>to_char(interval '15h&nbsp;2m&nbsp;12s', 'HH24:MI:SS')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_char</function>(<type>int</type>, <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>convert integer to string</entry>
<entry><literal>to_char(125, '999')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_char</function>(<type>double precision</type>,
<type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>convert real/double precision to string</entry>
<entry><literal>to_char(125.8::real, '999D9')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_char</function>(<type>numeric</type>, <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>convert numeric to string</entry>
<entry><literal>to_char(-125.8, '999D99S')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_date</function>(<type>text</type>, <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>date</type></entry>
<entry>convert string to date</entry>
<entry><literal>to_date('05&nbsp;Dec&nbsp;2000', 'DD&nbsp;Mon&nbsp;YYYY')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_timestamp</function>(<type>text</type>, <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry>
<entry>convert string to time stamp</entry>
<entry><literal>to_timestamp('05&nbsp;Dec&nbsp;2000', 'DD&nbsp;Mon&nbsp;YYYY')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_timestamp</function>(<type>double precision</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry>
<entry>convert UNIX epoch to time stamp</entry>
<entry><literal>to_timestamp(200120400)</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>to_number</function>(<type>text</type>, <type>text</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>numeric</type></entry>
<entry>convert string to numeric</entry>
<entry><literal>to_number('12,454.8-', '99G999D9S')</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
In an output template string (for <function>to_char</>), there are certain patterns that are
recognized and replaced with appropriately-formatted data from the value
to be formatted. Any text that is not a template pattern is simply
copied verbatim. Similarly, in an input template string (for anything but <function>to_char</>), template patterns
identify the parts of the input data string to be looked at and the
values to be found there.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-formatting-datetime-table"> shows the
template patterns available for formatting date and time values.
</para>
<table id="functions-formatting-datetime-table">
<title>Template Patterns for Date/Time Formatting</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Pattern</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal>HH</literal></entry>
<entry>hour of day (01-12)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>HH12</literal></entry>
<entry>hour of day (01-12)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>HH24</literal></entry>
<entry>hour of day (00-23)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>MI</literal></entry>
<entry>minute (00-59)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>SS</literal></entry>
<entry>second (00-59)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>MS</literal></entry>
<entry>millisecond (000-999)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>US</literal></entry>
<entry>microsecond (000000-999999)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>SSSS</literal></entry>
<entry>seconds past midnight (0-86399)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>AM</literal> or <literal>A.M.</literal> or
<literal>PM</literal> or <literal>P.M.</literal></entry>
<entry>meridian indicator (uppercase)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>am</literal> or <literal>a.m.</literal> or
<literal>pm</literal> or <literal>p.m.</literal></entry>
<entry>meridian indicator (lowercase)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>Y,YYY</literal></entry>
<entry>year (4 and more digits) with comma</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>YYYY</literal></entry>
<entry>year (4 and more digits)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>YYY</literal></entry>
<entry>last 3 digits of year</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>YY</literal></entry>
<entry>last 2 digits of year</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>Y</literal></entry>
<entry>last digit of year</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>IYYY</literal></entry>
<entry>ISO year (4 and more digits)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>IYY</literal></entry>
<entry>last 3 digits of ISO year</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>IY</literal></entry>
<entry>last 2 digits of ISO year</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>I</literal></entry>
<entry>last digits of ISO year</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>BC</literal> or <literal>B.C.</literal> or
<literal>AD</literal> or <literal>A.D.</literal></entry>
<entry>era indicator (uppercase)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>bc</literal> or <literal>b.c.</literal> or
<literal>ad</literal> or <literal>a.d.</literal></entry>
<entry>era indicator (lowercase)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>MONTH</literal></entry>
<entry>full uppercase month name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>Month</literal></entry>
<entry>full mixed-case month name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>month</literal></entry>
<entry>full lowercase month name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>MON</literal></entry>
<entry>abbreviated uppercase month name (3 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>Mon</literal></entry>
<entry>abbreviated mixed-case month name (3 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>mon</literal></entry>
<entry>abbreviated lowercase month name (3 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>MM</literal></entry>
<entry>month number (01-12)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>DAY</literal></entry>
<entry>full uppercase day name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>Day</literal></entry>
<entry>full mixed-case day name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>day</literal></entry>
<entry>full lowercase day name (blank-padded to 9 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>DY</literal></entry>
<entry>abbreviated uppercase day name (3 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>Dy</literal></entry>
<entry>abbreviated mixed-case day name (3 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>dy</literal></entry>
<entry>abbreviated lowercase day name (3 chars)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>DDD</literal></entry>
<entry>day of year (001-366)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>DD</literal></entry>
<entry>day of month (01-31)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>D</literal></entry>
<entry>day of week (1-7; Sunday is 1)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>W</literal></entry>
<entry>week of month (1-5) (The first week starts on the first day of the month.)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>WW</literal></entry>
<entry>week number of year (1-53) (The first week starts on the first day of the year.)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>IW</literal></entry>
<entry>ISO week number of year (The first Thursday of the new year is in week 1.)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>CC</literal></entry>
<entry>century (2 digits)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>J</literal></entry>
<entry>Julian Day (days since January 1, 4712 BC)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>Q</literal></entry>
<entry>quarter</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>RM</literal></entry>
<entry>month in Roman numerals (I-XII; I=January) (uppercase)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>rm</literal></entry>
<entry>month in Roman numerals (i-xii; i=January) (lowercase)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>TZ</literal></entry>
<entry>time-zone name (uppercase)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>tz</literal></entry>
<entry>time-zone name (lowercase)</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Certain modifiers may be applied to any template pattern to alter its
behavior. For example, <literal>FMMonth</literal>
is the <literal>Month</literal> pattern with the
<literal>FM</literal> modifier.
<xref linkend="functions-formatting-datetimemod-table"> shows the
modifier patterns for date/time formatting.
</para>
<table id="functions-formatting-datetimemod-table">
<title>Template Pattern Modifiers for Date/Time Formatting</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Modifier</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal>FM</literal> prefix</entry>
<entry>fill mode (suppress padding blanks and zeroes)</entry>
<entry><literal>FMMonth</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>TH</literal> suffix</entry>
<entry>uppercase ordinal number suffix</entry>
<entry><literal>DDTH</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>th</literal> suffix</entry>
<entry>lowercase ordinal number suffix</entry>
<entry><literal>DDth</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>FX</literal> prefix</entry>
<entry>fixed format global option (see usage notes)</entry>
<entry><literal>FX&nbsp;Month&nbsp;DD&nbsp;Day</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>SP</literal> suffix</entry>
<entry>spell mode (not yet implemented)</entry>
<entry><literal>DDSP</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Usage notes for date/time formatting:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>FM</literal> suppresses leading zeroes and trailing blanks
that would otherwise be added to make the output of a pattern be
fixed-width.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<function>to_timestamp</function> and <function>to_date</function>
skip multiple blank spaces in the input string if the <literal>FX</literal> option
is not used. <literal>FX</literal> must be specified as the first item
in the template. For example
<literal>to_timestamp('2000&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;JUN', 'YYYY MON')</literal> is correct, but
<literal>to_timestamp('2000&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;JUN', 'FXYYYY MON')</literal> returns an error,
because <function>to_timestamp</function> expects one space only.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Ordinary text is allowed in <function>to_char</function>
templates and will be output literally. You can put a substring
in double quotes to force it to be interpreted as literal text
even if it contains pattern key words. For example, in
<literal>'"Hello Year "YYYY'</literal>, the <literal>YYYY</literal>
will be replaced by the year data, but the single <literal>Y</literal> in <literal>Year</literal>
will not be.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
If you want to have a double quote in the output you must
precede it with a backslash, for example <literal>'\\"YYYY
Month\\"'</literal>. <!-- "" font-lock sanity :-) -->
(Two backslashes are necessary because the backslash already
has a special meaning in a string constant.)
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
The <literal>YYYY</literal> conversion from string to <type>timestamp</type> or
<type>date</type> has a restriction if you use a year with more than 4 digits. You must
use some non-digit character or template after <literal>YYYY</literal>,
otherwise the year is always interpreted as 4 digits. For example
(with the year 20000):
<literal>to_date('200001131', 'YYYYMMDD')</literal> will be
interpreted as a 4-digit year; instead use a non-digit
separator after the year, like
<literal>to_date('20000-1131', 'YYYY-MMDD')</literal> or
<literal>to_date('20000Nov31', 'YYYYMonDD')</literal>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
In conversions from string to <type>timestamp</type> or
<type>date</type>, the <literal>CC</literal> field is ignored if there
is a <literal>YYY</literal>, <literal>YYYY</literal> or
<literal>Y,YYY</literal> field. If <literal>CC</literal> is used with
<literal>YY</literal> or <literal>Y</literal> then the year is computed
as <literal>(CC-1)*100+YY</literal>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
Millisecond (<literal>MS</literal>) and microsecond (<literal>US</literal>)
values in a conversion from string to <type>timestamp</type> are used as part of the
seconds after the decimal point. For example
<literal>to_timestamp('12:3', 'SS:MS')</literal> is not 3 milliseconds,
but 300, because the conversion counts it as 12 + 0.3 seconds.
This means for the format <literal>SS:MS</literal>, the input values
<literal>12:3</literal>, <literal>12:30</literal>, and <literal>12:300</literal> specify the
same number of milliseconds. To get three milliseconds, one must use
<literal>12:003</literal>, which the conversion counts as
12 + 0.003 = 12.003 seconds.
</para>
<para>
Here is a more
complex example:
<literal>to_timestamp('15:12:02.020.001230', 'HH:MI:SS.MS.US')</literal>
is 15 hours, 12 minutes, and 2 seconds + 20 milliseconds +
1230 microseconds = 2.021230 seconds.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><function>to_char</function>'s day of the week numbering
(see the 'D' formatting pattern) is different from that of the
<function>extract</function> function.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para><function>to_char(interval)</function> formats <literal>HH</> and
<literal>HH12</> as hours in a single day, while <literal>HH24</>
can output hours exceeding a single day, e.g. &gt;24.
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-formatting-numeric-table"> shows the
template patterns available for formatting numeric values.
</para>
<table id="functions-formatting-numeric-table">
<title>Template Patterns for Numeric Formatting</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Pattern</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal>9</literal></entry>
<entry>value with the specified number of digits</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>0</literal></entry>
<entry>value with leading zeros</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>.</literal> (period)</entry>
<entry>decimal point</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>,</literal> (comma)</entry>
<entry>group (thousand) separator</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>PR</literal></entry>
<entry>negative value in angle brackets</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>S</literal></entry>
<entry>sign anchored to number (uses locale)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>L</literal></entry>
<entry>currency symbol (uses locale)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>D</literal></entry>
<entry>decimal point (uses locale)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>G</literal></entry>
<entry>group separator (uses locale)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>MI</literal></entry>
<entry>minus sign in specified position (if number &lt; 0)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>PL</literal></entry>
<entry>plus sign in specified position (if number &gt; 0)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>SG</literal></entry>
<entry>plus/minus sign in specified position</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>RN</literal></entry>
<entry>roman numeral (input between 1 and 3999)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>TH</literal> or <literal>th</literal></entry>
<entry>ordinal number suffix</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>V</literal></entry>
<entry>shift specified number of digits (see notes)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>EEEE</literal></entry>
<entry>scientific notation (not implemented yet)</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Usage notes for numeric formatting:
<itemizedlist>
<listitem>
<para>
A sign formatted using <literal>SG</literal>, <literal>PL</literal>, or
<literal>MI</literal> is not anchored to
the number; for example,
<literal>to_char(-12, 'S9999')</literal> produces <literal>'&nbsp;&nbsp;-12'</literal>,
but <literal>to_char(-12, 'MI9999')</literal> produces <literal>'-&nbsp;&nbsp;12'</literal>.
The Oracle implementation does not allow the use of
<literal>MI</literal> ahead of <literal>9</literal>, but rather
requires that <literal>9</literal> precede
<literal>MI</literal>.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>9</literal> results in a value with the same number of
digits as there are <literal>9</literal>s. If a digit is
not available it outputs a space.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>TH</literal> does not convert values less than zero
and does not convert fractional numbers.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>PL</literal>, <literal>SG</literal>, and
<literal>TH</literal> are <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
extensions.
</para>
</listitem>
<listitem>
<para>
<literal>V</literal> effectively
multiplies the input values by
<literal>10^<replaceable>n</replaceable></literal>, where
<replaceable>n</replaceable> is the number of digits following
<literal>V</literal>.
<function>to_char</function> does not support the use of
<literal>V</literal> combined with a decimal point.
(E.g., <literal>99.9V99</literal> is not allowed.)
</para>
</listitem>
</itemizedlist>
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-formatting-examples-table"> shows some
examples of the use of the <function>to_char</function> function.
</para>
<table id="functions-formatting-examples-table">
<title><function>to_char</function> Examples</title>
<tgroup cols="2">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Expression</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(current_timestamp, 'Day,&nbsp;DD&nbsp;&nbsp;HH12:MI:SS')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'Tuesday&nbsp;&nbsp;,&nbsp;06&nbsp;&nbsp;05:39:18'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(current_timestamp, 'FMDay,&nbsp;FMDD&nbsp;&nbsp;HH12:MI:SS')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'Tuesday,&nbsp;6&nbsp;&nbsp;05:39:18'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-0.1, '99.99')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;&nbsp;-.10'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-0.1, 'FM9.99')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'-.1'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(0.1, '0.9')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;0.1'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(12, '9990999.9')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;0012.0'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(12, 'FM9990999.9')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'0012.'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, '999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'-485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, '9&nbsp;9&nbsp;9')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;4&nbsp;8&nbsp;5'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(1485, '9,999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;1,485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(1485, '9G999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;1&nbsp;485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(148.5, '999.999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;148.500'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(148.5, 'FM999.999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'148.5'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(148.5, 'FM999.990')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'148.500'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(148.5, '999D999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;148,500'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(3148.5, '9G999D999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;3&nbsp;148,500'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999S')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'485-'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999MI')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'485-'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, '999MI')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'485&nbsp;'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, 'FM999MI')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, 'PL999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'+485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, 'SG999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'+485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-485, 'SG999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'-485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-485, '9SG99')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'4-85'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(-485, '999PR')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&lt;485&gt;'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, 'L999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'DM&nbsp;485</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, 'RN')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CDLXXXV'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, 'FMRN')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'CDLXXXV'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(5.2, 'FMRN')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'V'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(482, '999th')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;482nd'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485, '"Good&nbsp;number:"999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'Good&nbsp;number:&nbsp;485'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(485.8, '"Pre:"999"&nbsp;Post:"&nbsp;.999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'Pre:&nbsp;485&nbsp;Post:&nbsp;.800'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(12, '99V999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;12000'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(12.4, '99V999')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;12400'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal>to_char(12.45, '99V9')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>'&nbsp;125'</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-datetime">
<title>Date/Time Functions and Operators</title>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-datetime-table"> shows the available
functions for date/time value processing, with details appearing in
the following subsections. <xref
linkend="operators-datetime-table"> illustrates the behaviors of
the basic arithmetic operators (<literal>+</literal>,
<literal>*</literal>, etc.). For formatting functions, refer to
<xref linkend="functions-formatting">. You should be familiar with
the background information on date/time data types from <xref
linkend="datatype-datetime">.
</para>
<para>
All the functions and operators described below that take <type>time</type> or <type>timestamp</type>
inputs actually come in two variants: one that takes <type>time with time zone</type> or <type>timestamp
with time zone</type>, and one that takes <type>time without time zone</type> or <type>timestamp without time zone</type>.
For brevity, these variants are not shown separately. Also, the
<literal>+</> and <literal>*</> operators come in commutative pairs (for
example both date + integer and integer + date); we show only one of each
such pair.
</para>
<table id="operators-datetime-table">
<title>Date/Time Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-09-28' + integer '7'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-10-05'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-09-28' + interval '1 hour'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-28 01:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-09-28' + time '03:00'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-28 03:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>interval '1 day' + interval '1 hour'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '1 day 01:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-28 01:00' + interval '23 hours'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-29 00:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>time '01:00' + interval '3 hours'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>time '04:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>- interval '23 hours'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '-23:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-10-01' - date '2001-09-28'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>integer '3'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-10-01' - integer '7'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-09-24'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>date '2001-09-28' - interval '1 hour'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-27 23:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>time '05:00' - time '03:00'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '02:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>time '05:00' - interval '2 hours'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>time '03:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-28 23:00' - interval '23 hours'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-28 00:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>interval '1 day' - interval '1 hour'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '1 day -01:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>timestamp '2001-09-29 03:00' - timestamp '2001-09-27 12:00'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '1 day 15:00:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>*</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>900 * interval '1 second'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '00:15:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>*</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>21 * interval '1 day'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '21 days'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>*</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>double precision '3.5' * interval '1 hour'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '03:30:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>/</literal> </entry>
<entry><literal>interval '1 hour' / double precision '1.5'</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>interval '00:40:00'</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<indexterm>
<primary>age</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>current_date</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>current_time</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>current_timestamp</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>date_part</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>date_trunc</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>extract</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>isfinite</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>justify_hours</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>justify_days</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>localtime</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>localtimestamp</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>now</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>timeofday</primary>
</indexterm>
<table id="functions-datetime-table">
<title>Date/Time Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>age</function>(<type>timestamp</type>, <type>timestamp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>interval</type></entry>
<entry>Subtract arguments, producing a <quote>symbolic</> result that
uses years and months</entry>
<entry><literal>age(timestamp '2001-04-10', timestamp '1957-06-13')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>43 years 9 mons 27 days</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>age</function>(<type>timestamp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>interval</type></entry>
<entry>Subtract from <function>current_date</function></entry>
<entry><literal>age(timestamp '1957-06-13')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>43 years 8 mons 3 days</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>current_date</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>date</type></entry>
<entry>Today's date; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current">
</entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>current_time</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>time with time zone</type></entry>
<entry>Time of day; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current">
</entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>current_timestamp</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry>
<entry>Date and time; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current">
</entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>date_part</function>(<type>text</type>, <type>timestamp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>Get subfield (equivalent to
<function>extract</function>); see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract">
</entry>
<entry><literal>date_part('hour', timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>20</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>date_part</function>(<type>text</type>, <type>interval</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>Get subfield (equivalent to
<function>extract</function>); see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract">
</entry>
<entry><literal>date_part('month', interval '2 years 3 months')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>date_trunc</function>(<type>text</type>, <type>timestamp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>timestamp</type></entry>
<entry>Truncate to specified precision; see also <xref linkend="functions-datetime-trunc">
</entry>
<entry><literal>date_trunc('hour', timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>2001-02-16 20:00:00</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>extract</function>(<parameter>field</parameter> from
<type>timestamp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>Get subfield; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract">
</entry>
<entry><literal>extract(hour from timestamp '2001-02-16 20:38:40')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>20</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>extract</function>(<parameter>field</parameter> from
<type>interval</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>Get subfield; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-extract">
</entry>
<entry><literal>extract(month from interval '2 years 3 months')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>isfinite</function>(<type>timestamp</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>Test for finite time stamp (not equal to infinity)</entry>
<entry><literal>isfinite(timestamp '2001-02-16 21:28:30')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>true</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>isfinite</function>(<type>interval</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>Test for finite interval</entry>
<entry><literal>isfinite(interval '4 hours')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>true</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>justify_hours</function>(<type>interval</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>interval</type></entry>
<entry>Adjust interval so 24-hour time periods are represented as days</entry>
<entry><literal>justify_hours(interval '24 hours')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1 day</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>justify_days</function>(<type>interval</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>interval</type></entry>
<entry>Adjust interval so 30-day time periods are represented as months</entry>
<entry><literal>justify_days(interval '30 days')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1 month</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>localtime</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>time</type></entry>
<entry>Time of day; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current">
</entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>localtimestamp</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>timestamp</type></entry>
<entry>Date and time; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current">
</entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>now</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry>
<entry>Current date and time (equivalent to
<function>current_timestamp</function>); see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current">
</entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>timeofday</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Current date and time; see <xref linkend="functions-datetime-current">
</entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
If you are using both <function>justify_hours</> and
<function>justify_days</>, it is best to use <function>justify_hours</>
first so any additional days will be included in the
<function>justify_days</> calculation.
</para>
<para>
In addition to these functions, the SQL <literal>OVERLAPS</> operator is
supported:
<synopsis>
(<replaceable>start1</replaceable>, <replaceable>end1</replaceable>) OVERLAPS (<replaceable>start2</replaceable>, <replaceable>end2</replaceable>)
(<replaceable>start1</replaceable>, <replaceable>length1</replaceable>) OVERLAPS (<replaceable>start2</replaceable>, <replaceable>length2</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
This expression yields true when two time periods (defined by their
endpoints) overlap, false when they do not overlap. The endpoints
can be specified as pairs of dates, times, or time stamps; or as
a date, time, or time stamp followed by an interval.
</para>
<screen>
SELECT (DATE '2001-02-16', DATE '2001-12-21') OVERLAPS
(DATE '2001-10-30', DATE '2002-10-30');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>true</computeroutput>
SELECT (DATE '2001-02-16', INTERVAL '100 days') OVERLAPS
(DATE '2001-10-30', DATE '2002-10-30');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>false</computeroutput>
</screen>
<para>
When adding an <type>interval</type> value to (or subtracting an
<type>interval</type> value from) a <type>timestamp with time zone</type>
value, the days component advances (or decrements) the date of the
<type>timestamp with time zone</type> by the indicated number of days.
Across daylight saving time changes (with the session time zone set to a
time zone that recognizes DST), this means <literal>interval '1 day'</literal>
does not necessarily equal <literal>interval '24 hours'</literal>.
For example, with the session time zone set to <literal>CST7CDT</literal>,
<literal>timestamp with time zone '2005-04-02 12:00-07' + interval '1 day' </literal>
will produce <literal>timestamp with time zone '2005-04-03 12:00-06'</literal>,
while adding <literal>interval '24 hours'</literal> to the same initial
<type>timestamp with time zone</type> produces
<literal>timestamp with time zone '2005-04-03 13:00-06'</literal>, as there is
a change in daylight saving time at <literal>2005-04-03 02:00</literal> in time zone
<literal>CST7CDT</literal>.
</para>
<sect2 id="functions-datetime-extract">
<title><function>EXTRACT</function>, <function>date_part</function></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>date_part</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>extract</primary>
</indexterm>
<synopsis>
EXTRACT(<replaceable>field</replaceable> FROM <replaceable>source</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The <function>extract</function> function retrieves subfields
such as year or hour from date/time values.
<replaceable>source</replaceable> must be a value expression of
type <type>timestamp</type>, <type>time</type>, or <type>interval</type>.
(Expressions of type <type>date</type> will
be cast to <type>timestamp</type> and can therefore be used as
well.) <replaceable>field</replaceable> is an identifier or
string that selects what field to extract from the source value.
The <function>extract</function> function returns values of type
<type>double precision</type>.
The following are valid field names:
<!-- alphabetical -->
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>century</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The century
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(CENTURY FROM TIMESTAMP '2000-12-16 12:21:13');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>20</computeroutput>
SELECT EXTRACT(CENTURY FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>21</computeroutput>
</screen>
<para>
The first century starts at 0001-01-01 00:00:00 AD, although
they did not know it at the time. This definition applies to all
Gregorian calendar countries. There is no century number 0,
you go from -1 to 1.
If you disagree with this, please write your complaint to:
Pope, Cathedral Saint-Peter of Roma, Vatican.
</para>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> releases before 8.0 did not
follow the conventional numbering of centuries, but just returned
the year field divided by 100.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>day</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The day (of the month) field (1 - 31)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(DAY FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>16</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>decade</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The year field divided by 10
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(DECADE FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>200</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>dow</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The day of the week (0 - 6; Sunday is 0) (for
<type>timestamp</type> values only)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(DOW FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>5</computeroutput>
</screen>
<para>
Note that <function>extract</function>'s day of the week numbering is
different from that of the <function>to_char</function> function.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>doy</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The day of the year (1 - 365/366) (for <type>timestamp</type> values only)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(DOY FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>47</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>epoch</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
For <type>date</type> and <type>timestamp</type> values, the
number of seconds since 1970-01-01 00:00:00-00 (can be negative);
for <type>interval</type> values, the total number
of seconds in the interval
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE '2001-02-16 20:38:40-08');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>982384720</computeroutput>
SELECT EXTRACT(EPOCH FROM INTERVAL '5 days 3 hours');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>442800</computeroutput>
</screen>
<para>
Here is how you can convert an epoch value back to a time
stamp:
</para>
<screen>
SELECT TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE 'epoch' + 982384720 * INTERVAL '1 second';
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>hour</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The hour field (0 - 23)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(HOUR FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>20</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>microseconds</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The seconds field, including fractional parts, multiplied by 1
000 000. Note that this includes full seconds.
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(MICROSECONDS FROM TIME '17:12:28.5');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>28500000</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>millennium</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The millennium
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(MILLENNIUM FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>3</computeroutput>
</screen>
<para>
Years in the 1900s are in the second millennium.
The third millennium starts January 1, 2001.
</para>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> releases before 8.0 did not
follow the conventional numbering of millennia, but just returned
the year field divided by 1000.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>milliseconds</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The seconds field, including fractional parts, multiplied by
1000. Note that this includes full seconds.
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(MILLISECONDS FROM TIME '17:12:28.5');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>28500</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>minute</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The minutes field (0 - 59)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(MINUTE FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>38</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>month</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
For <type>timestamp</type> values, the number of the month
within the year (1 - 12) ; for <type>interval</type> values
the number of months, modulo 12 (0 - 11)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2</computeroutput>
SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM INTERVAL '2 years 3 months');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>3</computeroutput>
SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM INTERVAL '2 years 13 months');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>1</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>quarter</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The quarter of the year (1 - 4) that the day is in (for
<type>timestamp</type> values only)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(QUARTER FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>1</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>second</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The seconds field, including fractional parts (0 -
59<footnote><simpara>60 if leap seconds are
implemented by the operating system</simpara></footnote>)
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(SECOND FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>40</computeroutput>
SELECT EXTRACT(SECOND FROM TIME '17:12:28.5');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>28.5</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>timezone</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The time zone offset from UTC, measured in seconds. Positive values
correspond to time zones east of UTC, negative values to
zones west of UTC.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>timezone_hour</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The hour component of the time zone offset
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>timezone_minute</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The minute component of the time zone offset
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>week</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The number of the week of the year that the day is in. By definition
(<acronym>ISO</acronym> 8601), the first week of a year
contains January 4 of that year. (The <acronym>ISO</acronym>-8601
week starts on Monday.) In other words, the first Thursday of
a year is in week 1 of that year. (for <type>timestamp</type> values only)
</para>
<para>
Because of this, it is possible for early January dates to be part of the
52nd or 53rd week of the previous year. For example, <literal>2005-01-01</>
is part of the 53rd week of year 2004, and <literal>2006-01-01</> is part of
the 52nd week of year 2005.
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(WEEK FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>7</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><literal>year</literal></term>
<listitem>
<para>
The year field. Keep in mind there is no <literal>0 AD</>, so subtracting
<literal>BC</> years from <literal>AD</> years should be done with care.
</para>
<screen>
SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001</computeroutput>
</screen>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>
The <function>extract</function> function is primarily intended
for computational processing. For formatting date/time values for
display, see <xref linkend="functions-formatting">.
</para>
<para>
The <function>date_part</function> function is modeled on the traditional
<productname>Ingres</productname> equivalent to the
<acronym>SQL</acronym>-standard function <function>extract</function>:
<synopsis>
date_part('<replaceable>field</replaceable>', <replaceable>source</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
Note that here the <replaceable>field</replaceable> parameter needs to
be a string value, not a name. The valid field names for
<function>date_part</function> are the same as for
<function>extract</function>.
</para>
<screen>
SELECT date_part('day', TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>16</computeroutput>
SELECT date_part('hour', INTERVAL '4 hours 3 minutes');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>4</computeroutput>
</screen>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="functions-datetime-trunc">
<title><function>date_trunc</function></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>date_trunc</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The function <function>date_trunc</function> is conceptually
similar to the <function>trunc</function> function for numbers.
</para>
<para>
<synopsis>
date_trunc('<replaceable>field</replaceable>', <replaceable>source</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<replaceable>source</replaceable> is a value expression of type
<type>timestamp</type> or <type>interval</>.
(Values of type <type>date</type> and
<type>time</type> are cast automatically, to <type>timestamp</type> or
<type>interval</> respectively.)
<replaceable>field</replaceable> selects to which precision to
truncate the input value. The return value is of type
<type>timestamp</type> or <type>interval</>
with all fields that are less significant than the
selected one set to zero (or one, for day and month).
</para>
<para>
Valid values for <replaceable>field</replaceable> are:
<simplelist>
<member><literal>microseconds</literal></member>
<member><literal>milliseconds</literal></member>
<member><literal>second</literal></member>
<member><literal>minute</literal></member>
<member><literal>hour</literal></member>
<member><literal>day</literal></member>
<member><literal>week</literal></member>
<member><literal>month</literal></member>
<member><literal>year</literal></member>
<member><literal>decade</literal></member>
<member><literal>century</literal></member>
<member><literal>millennium</literal></member>
</simplelist>
</para>
<para>
Examples:
<screen>
SELECT date_trunc('hour', TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 20:00:00</computeroutput>
SELECT date_trunc('year', TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40');
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-01-01 00:00:00</computeroutput>
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="functions-datetime-zoneconvert">
<title><literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>time zone</primary>
<secondary>conversion</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>AT TIME ZONE</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The <literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal> construct allows conversions
of time stamps to different time zones. <xref
linkend="functions-datetime-zoneconvert-table"> shows its
variants.
</para>
<table id="functions-datetime-zoneconvert-table">
<title><literal>AT TIME ZONE</literal> Variants</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Expression</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><type>timestamp without time zone</type> AT TIME ZONE <replaceable>zone</></literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry>
<entry>Treat given time stamp <emphasis>without time zone</> as located in the specified time zone</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><type>timestamp with time zone</type> AT TIME ZONE <replaceable>zone</></literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>timestamp without time zone</type></entry>
<entry>Convert given time stamp <emphasis>with time zone</> to the new time zone</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><type>time with time zone</type> AT TIME ZONE <replaceable>zone</></literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>time with time zone</type></entry>
<entry>Convert given time <emphasis>with time zone</> to the new time zone</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
In these expressions, the desired time zone <replaceable>zone</> can be
specified either as a text string (e.g., <literal>'PST'</literal>)
or as an interval (e.g., <literal>INTERVAL '-08:00'</literal>).
In the text case, the available zone names are those shown in either
<xref linkend="datetime-timezone-set-table"> or
<xref linkend="datetime-timezone-input-table">.
</para>
<para>
Examples (supposing that the local time zone is <literal>PST8PDT</>):
<screen>
SELECT TIMESTAMP '2001-02-16 20:38:40' AT TIME ZONE 'MST';
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 19:38:40-08</computeroutput>
SELECT TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE '2001-02-16 20:38:40-05' AT TIME ZONE 'MST';
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-02-16 18:38:40</computeroutput>
</screen>
The first example takes a time stamp without time zone and interprets it as MST time
(UTC-7), which is then converted to PST (UTC-8) for display. The second example takes
a time stamp specified in EST (UTC-5) and converts it to local time in MST (UTC-7).
</para>
<para>
The function <literal><function>timezone</function>(<replaceable>zone</>,
<replaceable>timestamp</>)</literal> is equivalent to the SQL-conforming construct
<literal><replaceable>timestamp</> AT TIME ZONE
<replaceable>zone</></literal>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="functions-datetime-current">
<title>Current Date/Time</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>date</primary>
<secondary>current</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>time</primary>
<secondary>current</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The following functions are available to obtain the current date and/or
time:
<synopsis>
CURRENT_DATE
CURRENT_TIME
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
CURRENT_TIME (<replaceable>precision</replaceable>)
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP (<replaceable>precision</replaceable>)
LOCALTIME
LOCALTIMESTAMP
LOCALTIME (<replaceable>precision</replaceable>)
LOCALTIMESTAMP (<replaceable>precision</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
</para>
<para>
<function>CURRENT_TIME</function> and
<function>CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</function> deliver values with time zone;
<function>LOCALTIME</function> and
<function>LOCALTIMESTAMP</function> deliver values without time zone.
</para>
<para>
<function>CURRENT_TIME</function>,
<function>CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</function>,
<function>LOCALTIME</function>, and
<function>LOCALTIMESTAMP</function>
can optionally be given
a precision parameter, which causes the result to be rounded
to that many fractional digits in the seconds field. Without a precision parameter,
the result is given to the full available precision.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Prior to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 7.2, the precision
parameters were unimplemented, and the result was always given
in integer seconds.
</para>
</note>
<para>
Some examples:
<screen>
SELECT CURRENT_TIME;
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>14:39:53.662522-05</computeroutput>
SELECT CURRENT_DATE;
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-12-23</computeroutput>
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-12-23 14:39:53.662522-05</computeroutput>
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(2);
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-12-23 14:39:53.66-05</computeroutput>
SELECT LOCALTIMESTAMP;
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>2001-12-23 14:39:53.662522</computeroutput>
</screen>
</para>
<para>
The function <function>now()</function> is the traditional
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> equivalent to
<function>CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</function>.
</para>
<para>
It is important to know that
<function>CURRENT_TIMESTAMP</function> and related functions return
the start time of the current transaction; their values do not
change during the transaction. This is considered a feature:
the intent is to allow a single transaction to have a consistent
notion of the <quote>current</quote> time, so that multiple
modifications within the same transaction bear the same
time stamp.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Other database systems may advance these values more
frequently.
</para>
</note>
<para>
There is also the function <function>timeofday()</function> which
returns the wall-clock time and advances during transactions. For
historical reasons <function>timeofday()</function> returns a
<type>text</type> string rather than a <type>timestamp</type>
value:
<screen>
SELECT timeofday();
<lineannotation>Result: </lineannotation><computeroutput>Sat Feb 17 19:07:32.000126 2001 EST</computeroutput>
</screen>
</para>
<para>
All the date/time data types also accept the special literal value
<literal>now</literal> to specify the current date and time. Thus,
the following three all return the same result:
<programlisting>
SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
SELECT now();
SELECT TIMESTAMP 'now'; -- incorrect for use with DEFAULT
</programlisting>
</para>
<tip>
<para>
You do not want to use the third form when specifying a <literal>DEFAULT</>
clause while creating a table. The system will convert <literal>now</literal>
to a <type>timestamp</type> as soon as the constant is parsed, so that when
the default value is needed,
the time of the table creation would be used! The first two
forms will not be evaluated until the default value is used,
because they are function calls. Thus they will give the desired
behavior of defaulting to the time of row insertion.
</para>
</tip>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="functions-datetime-delay">
<title>Delaying Execution</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>pg_sleep</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>sleep</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>delay</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The following function is available to delay execution of the server
process:
<synopsis>
pg_sleep(<replaceable>seconds</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<function>pg_sleep</function> makes the current session's process
sleep until <replaceable>seconds</replaceable> seconds have
elapsed. <replaceable>seconds</replaceable> is a value of type
<type>double precision</>, so fractional-second delays can be specified.
For example:
<programlisting>
SELECT pg_sleep(1.5);
</programlisting>
</para>
<note>
<para>
The effective resolution of the sleep interval is platform-specific;
0.01 seconds is a common value. The sleep delay will be at least as long
as specified. It may be longer depending on factors such as server load.
</para>
</note>
<warning>
<para>
Make sure that your session does not hold more locks than necessary
when calling <function>pg_sleep</function>. Otherwise other sessions
might have to wait for your sleeping process, slowing down the entire
system.
</para>
</warning>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-geometry">
<title>Geometric Functions and Operators</title>
<para>
The geometric types <type>point</type>, <type>box</type>,
<type>lseg</type>, <type>line</type>, <type>path</type>,
<type>polygon</type>, and <type>circle</type> have a large set of
native support functions and operators, shown in <xref
linkend="functions-geometry-op-table">, <xref
linkend="functions-geometry-func-table">, and <xref
linkend="functions-geometry-conv-table">.
</para>
<caution>
<para>
Note that the <quote>same as</> operator, <literal>~=</>, represents
the usual notion of equality for the <type>point</type>,
<type>box</type>, <type>polygon</type>, and <type>circle</type> types.
Some of these types also have an <literal>=</> operator, but
<literal>=</> compares
for equal <emphasis>areas</> only. The other scalar comparison operators
(<literal>&lt;=</> and so on) likewise compare areas for these types.
</para>
</caution>
<table id="functions-geometry-op-table">
<title>Geometric Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry>Translation</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(1,1))' + point '(2.0,0)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry>Translation</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(1,1))' - point '(2.0,0)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>*</literal> </entry>
<entry>Scaling/rotation</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(1,1))' * point '(2.0,0)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>/</literal> </entry>
<entry>Scaling/rotation</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(2,2))' / point '(2.0,0)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>#</literal> </entry>
<entry>Point or box of intersection</entry>
<entry><literal>'((1,-1),(-1,1))' # '((1,1),(-1,-1))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>#</literal> </entry>
<entry>Number of points in path or polygon</entry>
<entry><literal># '((1,0),(0,1),(-1,0))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>@-@</literal> </entry>
<entry>Length or circumference</entry>
<entry><literal>@-@ path '((0,0),(1,0))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>@@</literal> </entry>
<entry>Center</entry>
<entry><literal>@@ circle '((0,0),10)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>##</literal> </entry>
<entry>Closest point to first operand on second operand</entry>
<entry><literal>point '(0,0)' ## lseg '((2,0),(0,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;-&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Distance between</entry>
<entry><literal>circle '((0,0),1)' &lt;-&gt; circle '((5,0),1)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&amp;&amp;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Overlaps?</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(1,1))' &amp;&amp; box '((0,0),(2,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is strictly left of?</entry>
<entry><literal>circle '((0,0),1)' &lt;&lt; circle '((5,0),1)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is strictly right of?</entry>
<entry><literal>circle '((5,0),1)' &gt;&gt; circle '((0,0),1)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&amp;&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Does not extend to the right of?</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(1,1))' &amp;&lt; box '((0,0),(2,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&amp;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Does not extend to the left of?</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(3,3))' &amp;&gt; box '((0,0),(2,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&lt;|</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is strictly below?</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(3,3))' &lt;&lt;| box '((3,4),(5,5))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>|&gt;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is strictly above?</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((3,4),(5,5))' |&gt;&gt; box '((0,0),(3,3))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&amp;&lt;|</literal> </entry>
<entry>Does not extend above?</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(1,1))' &amp;&lt;| box '((0,0),(2,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>|&amp;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>Does not extend below?</entry>
<entry><literal>box '((0,0),(3,3))' |&amp;&gt; box '((0,0),(2,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;^</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is below (allows touching)?</entry>
<entry><literal>circle '((0,0),1)' &lt;^ circle '((0,5),1)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;^</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is above (allows touching)?</entry>
<entry><literal>circle '((0,5),1)' &gt;^ circle '((0,0),1)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?#</literal> </entry>
<entry>Intersects?</entry>
<entry><literal>lseg '((-1,0),(1,0))' ?# box '((-2,-2),(2,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?-</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is horizontal?</entry>
<entry><literal>?- lseg '((-1,0),(1,0))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?-</literal> </entry>
<entry>Are horizontally aligned?</entry>
<entry><literal>point '(1,0)' ?- point '(0,0)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?|</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is vertical?</entry>
<entry><literal>?| lseg '((-1,0),(1,0))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?|</literal> </entry>
<entry>Are vertically aligned?</entry>
<entry><literal>point '(0,1)' ?| point '(0,0)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?-|</literal> </entry>
<entry>Is perpendicular?</entry>
<entry><literal>lseg '((0,0),(0,1))' ?-| lseg '((0,0),(1,0))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>?||</literal> </entry>
<entry>Are parallel?</entry>
<entry><literal>lseg '((-1,0),(1,0))' ?|| lseg '((-1,2),(1,2))'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>~</literal> </entry>
<entry>Contains?</entry>
<entry><literal>circle '((0,0),2)' ~ point '(1,1)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>@</literal> </entry>
<entry>Contained in or on?</entry>
<entry><literal>point '(1,1)' @ circle '((0,0),2)'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>~=</literal> </entry>
<entry>Same as?</entry>
<entry><literal>polygon '((0,0),(1,1))' ~= polygon '((1,1),(0,0))'</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<indexterm>
<primary>area</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>center</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>diameter</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>height</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>isclosed</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>isopen</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>length</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>npoints</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>pclose</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>popen</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>radius</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>width</primary>
</indexterm>
<table id="functions-geometry-func-table">
<title>Geometric Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>area</function>(<replaceable>object</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>area</entry>
<entry><literal>area(box '((0,0),(1,1))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>center</function>(<replaceable>object</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>center</entry>
<entry><literal>center(box '((0,0),(1,2))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>diameter</function>(<type>circle</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>diameter of circle</entry>
<entry><literal>diameter(circle '((0,0),2.0)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>height</function>(<type>box</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>vertical size of box</entry>
<entry><literal>height(box '((0,0),(1,1))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>isclosed</function>(<type>path</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>a closed path?</entry>
<entry><literal>isclosed(path '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>isopen</function>(<type>path</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>an open path?</entry>
<entry><literal>isopen(path '[(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)]')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>length</function>(<replaceable>object</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>length</entry>
<entry><literal>length(path '((-1,0),(1,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>npoints</function>(<type>path</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>number of points</entry>
<entry><literal>npoints(path '[(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)]')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>npoints</function>(<type>polygon</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>number of points</entry>
<entry><literal>npoints(polygon '((1,1),(0,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pclose</function>(<type>path</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>path</type></entry>
<entry>convert path to closed</entry>
<entry><literal>pclose(path '[(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)]')</literal></entry>
</row>
<![IGNORE[
<!-- Not defined by this name. Implements the intersection operator '#' -->
<row>
<entry><literal><function>point</function>(<type>lseg</>, <type>lseg</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>intersection</entry>
<entry><literal>point(lseg '((-1,0),(1,0))',lseg '((-2,-2),(2,2))')</literal></entry>
</row>
]]>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>popen</function>(<type>path</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>path</type></entry>
<entry>convert path to open</entry>
<entry><literal>popen(path '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>radius</function>(<type>circle</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>radius of circle</entry>
<entry><literal>radius(circle '((0,0),2.0)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>width</function>(<type>box</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>double precision</type></entry>
<entry>horizontal size of box</entry>
<entry><literal>width(box '((0,0),(1,1))')</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<table id="functions-geometry-conv-table">
<title>Geometric Type Conversion Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>box</function>(<type>circle</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>box</type></entry>
<entry>circle to box</entry>
<entry><literal>box(circle '((0,0),2.0)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>box</function>(<type>point</type>, <type>point</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>box</type></entry>
<entry>points to box</entry>
<entry><literal>box(point '(0,0)', point '(1,1)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>box</function>(<type>polygon</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>box</type></entry>
<entry>polygon to box</entry>
<entry><literal>box(polygon '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>circle</function>(<type>box</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>circle</type></entry>
<entry>box to circle</entry>
<entry><literal>circle(box '((0,0),(1,1))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>circle</function>(<type>point</type>, <type>double precision</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>circle</type></entry>
<entry>center and radius to circle</entry>
<entry><literal>circle(point '(0,0)', 2.0)</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>circle</function>(<type>polygon</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>circle</type></entry>
<entry>polygon to circle</entry>
<entry><literal>circle(polygon '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>lseg</function>(<type>box</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>lseg</type></entry>
<entry>box diagonal to line segment</entry>
<entry><literal>lseg(box '((-1,0),(1,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>lseg</function>(<type>point</type>, <type>point</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>lseg</type></entry>
<entry>points to line segment</entry>
<entry><literal>lseg(point '(-1,0)', point '(1,0)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>path</function>(<type>polygon</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>polygon to path</entry>
<entry><literal>path(polygon '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>point</function>(<type>double
precision</type>, <type>double precision</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>construct point</entry>
<entry><literal>point(23.4, -44.5)</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>point</function>(<type>box</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>center of box</entry>
<entry><literal>point(box '((-1,0),(1,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>point</function>(<type>circle</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>center of circle</entry>
<entry><literal>point(circle '((0,0),2.0)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>point</function>(<type>lseg</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>center of line segment</entry>
<entry><literal>point(lseg '((-1,0),(1,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>point</function>(<type>polygon</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>point</type></entry>
<entry>center of polygon</entry>
<entry><literal>point(polygon '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>polygon</function>(<type>box</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>polygon</type></entry>
<entry>box to 4-point polygon</entry>
<entry><literal>polygon(box '((0,0),(1,1))')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>polygon</function>(<type>circle</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>polygon</type></entry>
<entry>circle to 12-point polygon</entry>
<entry><literal>polygon(circle '((0,0),2.0)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>polygon</function>(<replaceable class="parameter">npts</replaceable>, <type>circle</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>polygon</type></entry>
<entry>circle to <replaceable class="parameter">npts</replaceable>-point polygon</entry>
<entry><literal>polygon(12, circle '((0,0),2.0)')</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>polygon</function>(<type>path</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>polygon</type></entry>
<entry>path to polygon</entry>
<entry><literal>polygon(path '((0,0),(1,1),(2,0))')</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
It is possible to access the two component numbers of a <type>point</>
as though it were an array with indices 0 and 1. For example, if
<literal>t.p</> is a <type>point</> column then
<literal>SELECT p[0] FROM t</> retrieves the X coordinate and
<literal>UPDATE t SET p[1] = ...</> changes the Y coordinate.
In the same way, a value of type <type>box</> or <type>lseg</> may be treated
as an array of two <type>point</> values.
</para>
<para>
The <function>area</function> function works for the types
<type>box</type>, <type>circle</type>, and <type>path</type>.
The <function>area</function> function only works on the
<type>path</type> data type if the points in the
<type>path</type> are non-intersecting. For example, the
<type>path</type>
<literal>'((0,0),(0,1),(2,1),(2,2),(1,2),(1,0),(0,0))'::PATH</literal>
won't work, however, the following visually identical
<type>path</type>
<literal>'((0,0),(0,1),(1,1),(1,2),(2,2),(2,1),(1,1),(1,0),(0,0))'::PATH</literal>
will work. If the concept of an intersecting versus
non-intersecting <type>path</type> is confusing, draw both of the
above <type>path</type>s side by side on a piece of graph paper.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-net">
<title>Network Address Functions and Operators</title>
<para>
<xref linkend="cidr-inet-operators-table"> shows the operators
available for the <type>cidr</type> and <type>inet</type> types.
The operators <literal>&lt;&lt;</literal>,
<literal>&lt;&lt;=</literal>, <literal>&gt;&gt;</literal>, and
<literal>&gt;&gt;=</literal> test for subnet inclusion. They
consider only the network parts of the two addresses, ignoring any
host part, and determine whether one network part is identical to
or a subnet of the other.
</para>
<table id="cidr-inet-operators-table">
<title><type>cidr</type> and <type>inet</type> Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>is less than</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.5' &lt; inet '192.168.1.6'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>is less than or equal</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.5' &lt;= inet '192.168.1.5'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>=</literal> </entry>
<entry>equals</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.5' = inet '192.168.1.5'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>is greater or equal</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.5' &gt;= inet '192.168.1.5'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>is greater than</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.5' &gt; inet '192.168.1.4'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>is not equal</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.5' &lt;&gt; inet '192.168.1.4'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>is contained within</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.5' &lt;&lt; inet '192.168.1/24'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&lt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>is contained within or equals</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1/24' &lt;&lt;= inet '192.168.1/24'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>contains</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1/24' &gt;&gt; inet '192.168.1.5'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;&gt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>contains or equals</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1/24' &gt;&gt;= inet '192.168.1/24'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>~</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise NOT</entry>
<entry><literal>~ inet '192.168.1.6'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&amp;</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise AND</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.6' &amp; inet '0.0.0.255'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>|</literal> </entry>
<entry>bitwise OR</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.6' | inet '0.0.0.255'</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>+</literal> </entry>
<entry>addition</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.6' + 25</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry>subtraction</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.43' - 36</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>-</literal> </entry>
<entry>subtraction</entry>
<entry><literal>inet '192.168.1.43' - inet '192.168.1.19'</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
<xref linkend="cidr-inet-functions-table"> shows the functions
available for use with the <type>cidr</type> and <type>inet</type>
types. The <function>host</function>,
<function>text</function>, and <function>abbrev</function>
functions are primarily intended to offer alternative display
formats.
</para>
<table id="cidr-inet-functions-table">
<title><type>cidr</type> and <type>inet</type> Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>broadcast</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>inet</type></entry>
<entry>broadcast address for network</entry>
<entry><literal>broadcast('192.168.1.5/24')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>192.168.1.255/24</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>host</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>extract IP address as text</entry>
<entry><literal>host('192.168.1.5/24')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>192.168.1.5</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>masklen</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>extract netmask length</entry>
<entry><literal>masklen('192.168.1.5/24')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>24</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>set_masklen</function>(<type>inet</type>, <type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>inet</type></entry>
<entry>set netmask length for <type>inet</type> value</entry>
<entry><literal>set_masklen('192.168.1.5/24', 16)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>192.168.1.5/16</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>set_masklen</function>(<type>cidr</type>, <type>int</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>cidr</type></entry>
<entry>set netmask length for <type>cidr</type> value</entry>
<entry><literal>set_masklen('192.168.1.0/24'::cidr, 16)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>192.168.0.0/16</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>netmask</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>inet</type></entry>
<entry>construct netmask for network</entry>
<entry><literal>netmask('192.168.1.5/24')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>255.255.255.0</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>hostmask</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>inet</type></entry>
<entry>construct host mask for network</entry>
<entry><literal>hostmask('192.168.23.20/30')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>0.0.0.3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>network</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>cidr</type></entry>
<entry>extract network part of address</entry>
<entry><literal>network('192.168.1.5/24')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>192.168.1.0/24</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>text</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>extract IP address and netmask length as text</entry>
<entry><literal>text(inet '192.168.1.5')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>192.168.1.5/32</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>abbrev</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>abbreviated display format as text</entry>
<entry><literal>abbrev(inet '10.1.0.0/16')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>10.1.0.0/16</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>abbrev</function>(<type>cidr</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>abbreviated display format as text</entry>
<entry><literal>abbrev(cidr '10.1.0.0/16')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>10.1/16</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>family</function>(<type>inet</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>extract family of address; <literal>4</literal> for IPv4,
<literal>6</literal> for IPv6</entry>
<entry><literal>family('::1')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>6</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Any <type>cidr</> value can be cast to <type>inet</> implicitly
or explicitly; therefore, the functions shown above as operating on
<type>inet</> also work on <type>cidr</> values. (Where there are
separate functions for <type>inet</> and <type>cidr</>, it is because
the behavior should be different for the two cases.)
Also, it is permitted to cast an <type>inet</> value to <type>cidr</>.
When this is done, any bits to the right of the netmask are silently zeroed
to create a valid <type>cidr</> value.
In addition,
you can cast a text value to <type>inet</> or <type>cidr</>
using normal casting syntax: for example,
<literal>inet(<replaceable>expression</>)</literal> or
<literal><replaceable>colname</>::cidr</literal>.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="macaddr-functions-table"> shows the functions
available for use with the <type>macaddr</type> type. The function
<literal><function>trunc</function>(<type>macaddr</type>)</literal> returns a MAC
address with the last 3 bytes set to zero. This can be used to
associate the remaining prefix with a manufacturer. The directory
<filename>contrib/mac</filename> in the source distribution
contains some utilities to create and maintain such an association
table.
</para>
<table id="macaddr-functions-table">
<title><type>macaddr</type> Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>trunc</function>(<type>macaddr</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>macaddr</type></entry>
<entry>set last 3 bytes to zero</entry>
<entry><literal>trunc(macaddr '12:34:56:78:90:ab')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>12:34:56:00:00:00</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The <type>macaddr</type> type also supports the standard relational
operators (<literal>&gt;</literal>, <literal>&lt;=</literal>, etc.) for
lexicographical ordering.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-sequence">
<title>Sequence Manipulation Functions</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>sequence</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>nextval</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>currval</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>lastval</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>setval</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
This section describes <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>'s functions
for operating on <firstterm>sequence objects</firstterm>.
Sequence objects (also called sequence generators or
just sequences) are special single-row tables created with
<command>CREATE SEQUENCE</command>. A sequence object is usually used to
generate unique identifiers for rows of a table. The sequence functions,
listed in <xref linkend="functions-sequence-table">,
provide simple, multiuser-safe methods for obtaining successive
sequence values from sequence objects.
</para>
<table id="functions-sequence-table">
<title>Sequence Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Function</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry></row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>nextval</function>(<type>regclass</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Advance sequence and return new value</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>currval</function>(<type>regclass</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Return value most recently obtained with
<function>nextval</function> for specified sequence</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>lastval</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Return value most recently obtained with <function>nextval</function></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>setval</function>(<type>regclass</type>, <type>bigint</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Set sequence's current value</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>setval</function>(<type>regclass</type>, <type>bigint</type>, <type>boolean</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Set sequence's current value and <literal>is_called</literal> flag</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The sequence to be operated on by a sequence-function call is specified by
a <type>regclass</> argument, which is just the OID of the sequence in the
<structname>pg_class</> system catalog. You do not have to look up the
OID by hand, however, since the <type>regclass</> data type's input
converter will do the work for you. Just write the sequence name enclosed
in single quotes, so that it looks like a literal constant. To
achieve some compatibility with the handling of ordinary
<acronym>SQL</acronym> names, the string will be converted to lowercase
unless it contains double quotes around the sequence name. Thus
<programlisting>
nextval('foo') <lineannotation>operates on sequence <literal>foo</literal></>
nextval('FOO') <lineannotation>operates on sequence <literal>foo</literal></>
nextval('"Foo"') <lineannotation>operates on sequence <literal>Foo</literal></>
</programlisting>
The sequence name can be schema-qualified if necessary:
<programlisting>
nextval('myschema.foo') <lineannotation>operates on <literal>myschema.foo</literal></>
nextval('"myschema".foo') <lineannotation>same as above</lineannotation>
nextval('foo') <lineannotation>searches search path for <literal>foo</literal></>
</programlisting>
See <xref linkend="datatype-oid"> for more information about
<type>regclass</>.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Before <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 8.1, the arguments of the
sequence functions were of type <type>text</>, not <type>regclass</>, and
the above-described conversion from a text string to an OID value would
happen at run time during each call. For backwards compatibility, this
facility still exists, but internally it is now handled as an implicit
coercion from <type>text</> to <type>regclass</> before the function is
invoked.
</para>
<para>
When you write the argument of a sequence function as an unadorned
literal string, it becomes a constant of type <type>regclass</>.
Since this is really just an OID, it will track the originally
identified sequence despite later renaming, schema reassignment,
etc. This <quote>early binding</> behavior is usually desirable for
sequence references in column defaults and views. But sometimes you will
want <quote>late binding</> where the sequence reference is resolved
at run time. To get late-binding behavior, force the constant to be
stored as a <type>text</> constant instead of <type>regclass</>:
<programlisting>
nextval('foo'::text) <lineannotation><literal>foo</literal> is looked up at runtime</>
</programlisting>
Note that late binding was the only behavior supported in
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> releases before 8.1, so you
may need to do this to preserve the semantics of old applications.
</para>
<para>
Of course, the argument of a sequence function can be an expression
as well as a constant. If it is a text expression then the implicit
coercion will result in a run-time lookup.
</para>
</note>
<para>
The available sequence functions are:
<variablelist>
<varlistentry>
<term><function>nextval</function></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Advance the sequence object to its next value and return that
value. This is done atomically: even if multiple sessions
execute <function>nextval</function> concurrently, each will safely receive
a distinct sequence value.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><function>currval</function></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Return the value most recently obtained by <function>nextval</function>
for this sequence in the current session. (An error is
reported if <function>nextval</function> has never been called for this
sequence in this session.) Notice that because this is returning
a session-local value, it gives a predictable answer whether or not
other sessions have executed <function>nextval</function> since the
current session did.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><function>lastval</function></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Return the value most recently returned by
<function>nextval</> in the current session. This function is
identical to <function>currval</function>, except that instead
of taking the sequence name as an argument it fetches the
value of the last sequence that <function>nextval</function>
was used on in the current session. It is an error to call
<function>lastval</function> if <function>nextval</function>
has not yet been called in the current session.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
<varlistentry>
<term><function>setval</function></term>
<listitem>
<para>
Reset the sequence object's counter value. The two-parameter
form sets the sequence's <literal>last_value</literal> field to the specified
value and sets its <literal>is_called</literal> field to <literal>true</literal>,
meaning that the next <function>nextval</function> will advance the sequence
before returning a value. In the three-parameter form,
<literal>is_called</literal> may be set either <literal>true</literal> or
<literal>false</literal>. If it's set to <literal>false</literal>,
the next <function>nextval</function> will return exactly the specified
value, and sequence advancement commences with the following
<function>nextval</function>. For example,
<screen>
SELECT setval('foo', 42); <lineannotation>Next <function>nextval</> will return 43</lineannotation>
SELECT setval('foo', 42, true); <lineannotation>Same as above</lineannotation>
SELECT setval('foo', 42, false); <lineannotation>Next <function>nextval</> will return 42</lineannotation>
</screen>
The result returned by <function>setval</function> is just the value of its
second argument.
</para>
</listitem>
</varlistentry>
</variablelist>
</para>
<para>
If a sequence object has been created with default parameters,
<function>nextval</function> calls on it will return successive values
beginning with 1. Other behaviors can be obtained by using
special parameters in the <xref linkend="sql-createsequence" endterm="sql-createsequence-title"> command;
see its command reference page for more information.
</para>
<important>
<para>
To avoid blocking of concurrent transactions that obtain numbers from the
same sequence, a <function>nextval</function> operation is never rolled back;
that is, once a value has been fetched it is considered used, even if the
transaction that did the <function>nextval</function> later aborts. This means
that aborted transactions may leave unused <quote>holes</quote> in the
sequence of assigned values. <function>setval</function> operations are never
rolled back, either.
</para>
</important>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-conditional">
<title>Conditional Expressions</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>CASE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>conditional expression</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
This section describes the <acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant conditional expressions
available in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>.
</para>
<tip>
<para>
If your needs go beyond the capabilities of these conditional
expressions you might want to consider writing a stored procedure
in a more expressive programming language.
</para>
</tip>
<sect2>
<title><literal>CASE</></title>
<para>
The <acronym>SQL</acronym> <token>CASE</token> expression is a
generic conditional expression, similar to if/else statements in
other languages:
<synopsis>
CASE WHEN <replaceable>condition</replaceable> THEN <replaceable>result</replaceable>
<optional>WHEN ...</optional>
<optional>ELSE <replaceable>result</replaceable></optional>
END
</synopsis>
<token>CASE</token> clauses can be used wherever
an expression is valid. <replaceable>condition</replaceable> is an
expression that returns a <type>boolean</type> result. If the result is true
then the value of the <token>CASE</token> expression is the
<replaceable>result</replaceable> that follows the condition. If the result is false any
subsequent <token>WHEN</token> clauses are searched in the same
manner. If no <token>WHEN</token>
<replaceable>condition</replaceable> is true then the value of the
case expression is the <replaceable>result</replaceable> in the
<token>ELSE</token> clause. If the <token>ELSE</token> clause is
omitted and no condition matches, the result is null.
</para>
<para>
An example:
<screen>
SELECT * FROM test;
a
---
1
2
3
SELECT a,
CASE WHEN a=1 THEN 'one'
WHEN a=2 THEN 'two'
ELSE 'other'
END
FROM test;
a | case
---+-------
1 | one
2 | two
3 | other
</screen>
</para>
<para>
The data types of all the <replaceable>result</replaceable>
expressions must be convertible to a single output type.
See <xref linkend="typeconv-union-case"> for more detail.
</para>
<para>
The following <quote>simple</quote> <token>CASE</token> expression is a
specialized variant of the general form above:
<synopsis>
CASE <replaceable>expression</replaceable>
WHEN <replaceable>value</replaceable> THEN <replaceable>result</replaceable>
<optional>WHEN ...</optional>
<optional>ELSE <replaceable>result</replaceable></optional>
END
</synopsis>
The
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> is computed and compared to
all the <replaceable>value</replaceable> specifications in the
<token>WHEN</token> clauses until one is found that is equal. If
no match is found, the <replaceable>result</replaceable> in the
<token>ELSE</token> clause (or a null value) is returned. This is similar
to the <function>switch</function> statement in C.
</para>
<para>
The example above can be written using the simple
<token>CASE</token> syntax:
<screen>
SELECT a,
CASE a WHEN 1 THEN 'one'
WHEN 2 THEN 'two'
ELSE 'other'
END
FROM test;
a | case
---+-------
1 | one
2 | two
3 | other
</screen>
</para>
<para>
A <token>CASE</token> expression does not evaluate any subexpressions
that are not needed to determine the result. For example, this is a
possible way of avoiding a division-by-zero failure:
<programlisting>
SELECT ... WHERE CASE WHEN x &lt;&gt; 0 THEN y/x &gt; 1.5 ELSE false END;
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>COALESCE</></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>COALESCE</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>NVL</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IFNULL</primary>
</indexterm>
<synopsis>
<function>COALESCE</function>(<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The <function>COALESCE</function> function returns the first of its
arguments that is not null. Null is returned only if all arguments
are null. It is often used to substitute a default value for
null values when data is retrieved for display, for example:
<programlisting>
SELECT COALESCE(description, short_description, '(none)') ...
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
Like a <token>CASE</token> expression, <function>COALESCE</function> will
not evaluate arguments that are not needed to determine the result;
that is, arguments to the right of the first non-null argument are
not evaluated. This SQL-standard function provides capabilities similar
to <function>NVL</> and <function>IFNULL</>, which are used in some other
database systems.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>NULLIF</></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>NULLIF</primary>
</indexterm>
<synopsis>
<function>NULLIF</function>(<replaceable>value1</replaceable>, <replaceable>value2</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The <function>NULLIF</function> function returns a null value if
<replaceable>value1</replaceable> and <replaceable>value2</replaceable>
are equal; otherwise it returns <replaceable>value1</replaceable>.
This can be used to perform the inverse operation of the
<function>COALESCE</function> example given above:
<programlisting>
SELECT NULLIF(value, '(none)') ...
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
If <replaceable>value1</replaceable> is <literal>(none)</>, return a null,
otherwise return <replaceable>value1</replaceable>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>GREATEST</literal> and <literal>LEAST</literal></title>
<indexterm>
<primary>GREATEST</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>LEAST</primary>
</indexterm>
<synopsis>
<function>GREATEST</function>(<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>)
</synopsis>
<synopsis>
<function>LEAST</function>(<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The <function>GREATEST</> and <function>LEAST</> functions select the
largest or smallest value from a list of any number of expressions.
The expressions must all be convertible to a common data type, which
will be the type of the result
(see <xref linkend="typeconv-union-case"> for details). NULL values
in the list are ignored. The result will be NULL only if all the
expressions evaluate to NULL.
</para>
<para>
Note that <function>GREATEST</> and <function>LEAST</> are not in
the SQL standard, but are a common extension.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-array">
<title>Array Functions and Operators</title>
<para>
<xref linkend="array-operators-table"> shows the operators
available for <type>array</type> types.
</para>
<table id="array-operators-table">
<title><type>array</type> Operators</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Operator</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry> <literal>=</literal> </entry>
<entry>equal</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1.1,2.1,3.1]::int[] = ARRAY[1,2,3]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>t</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>not equal</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1,2,3] &lt;&gt; ARRAY[1,2,4]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>t</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>less than</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1,2,3] &lt; ARRAY[1,2,4]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>t</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;</literal> </entry>
<entry>greater than</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1,4,3] &gt; ARRAY[1,2,4]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>t</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&lt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>less than or equal</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1,2,3] &lt;= ARRAY[1,2,3]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>t</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>&gt;=</literal> </entry>
<entry>greater than or equal</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1,4,3] &gt;= ARRAY[1,4,3]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>t</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>||</literal> </entry>
<entry>array-to-array concatenation</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1,2,3] || ARRAY[4,5,6]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{1,2,3,4,5,6}</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>||</literal> </entry>
<entry>array-to-array concatenation</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[1,2,3] || ARRAY[[4,5,6],[7,8,9]]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{{1,2,3},{4,5,6},{7,8,9}}</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>||</literal> </entry>
<entry>element-to-array concatenation</entry>
<entry><literal>3 || ARRAY[4,5,6]</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{3,4,5,6}</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry> <literal>||</literal> </entry>
<entry>array-to-element concatenation</entry>
<entry><literal>ARRAY[4,5,6] || 7</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{4,5,6,7}</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Array comparisons compare the array contents element-by-element,
using the default btree comparison function for the element data type.
In multidimensional arrays the elements are visited in row-major order
(last subscript varies most rapidly).
If the contents of two arrays are equal but the dimensionality is
different, the first difference in the dimensionality information
determines the sort order. (This is a change from versions of
<productname>PostgreSQL</> prior to 8.2: older versions would claim
that two arrays with the same contents were equal, even if the
number of dimensions or subscript ranges were different.)
</para>
<para>
See <xref linkend="arrays"> for more details about array operator
behavior.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="array-functions-table"> shows the functions
available for use with array types. See <xref linkend="arrays">
for more discussion and examples of the use of these functions.
</para>
<table id="array-functions-table">
<title><type>array</type> Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="5">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
<entry>Example</entry>
<entry>Result</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>array_cat</function>
(<type>anyarray</type>, <type>anyarray</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>anyarray</type></entry>
<entry>concatenate two arrays</entry>
<entry><literal>array_cat(ARRAY[1,2,3], ARRAY[4,5])</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{1,2,3,4,5}</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>array_append</function>
(<type>anyarray</type>, <type>anyelement</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>anyarray</type></entry>
<entry>append an element to the end of an array</entry>
<entry><literal>array_append(ARRAY[1,2], 3)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{1,2,3}</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>array_prepend</function>
(<type>anyelement</type>, <type>anyarray</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>anyarray</type></entry>
<entry>append an element to the beginning of an array</entry>
<entry><literal>array_prepend(1, ARRAY[2,3])</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{1,2,3}</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>array_dims</function>
(<type>anyarray</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>returns a text representation of array's dimensions</entry>
<entry><literal>array_dims(ARRAY[[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>[1:2][1:3]</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>array_lower</function>
(<type>anyarray</type>, <type>int</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>returns lower bound of the requested array dimension</entry>
<entry><literal>array_lower('[0:2]={1,2,3}'::int[], 1)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>0</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>array_upper</function>
(<type>anyarray</type>, <type>int</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>returns upper bound of the requested array dimension</entry>
<entry><literal>array_upper(ARRAY[1,2,3,4], 1)</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>4</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>array_to_string</function>
(<type>anyarray</type>, <type>text</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>concatenates array elements using provided delimiter</entry>
<entry><literal>array_to_string(ARRAY[1, 2, 3], '~^~')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>1~^~2~^~3</literal></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal>
<function>string_to_array</function>
(<type>text</type>, <type>text</type>)
</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text[]</type></entry>
<entry>splits string into array elements using provided delimiter</entry>
<entry><literal>string_to_array('xx~^~yy~^~zz', '~^~')</literal></entry>
<entry><literal>{xx,yy,zz}</literal></entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-aggregate">
<title>Aggregate Functions</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-aggregate">
<primary>aggregate function</primary>
<secondary>built-in</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<firstterm>Aggregate functions</firstterm> compute a single result
value from a set of input values. <xref
linkend="functions-aggregate-table"> shows the built-in aggregate
functions. The special syntax considerations for aggregate
functions are explained in <xref linkend="syntax-aggregates">.
Consult <xref linkend="tutorial-agg"> for additional introductory
information.
</para>
<table id="functions-aggregate-table">
<title>Aggregate Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Argument Type</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>average</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>avg(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>smallint</type>, <type>int</type>,
<type>bigint</type>, <type>real</type>, <type>double
precision</type>, <type>numeric</type>, or <type>interval</type>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>numeric</type> for any integer type argument,
<type>double precision</type> for a floating-point argument,
otherwise the same as the argument data type
</entry>
<entry>the average (arithmetic mean) of all input values</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>bit_and</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>bit_and(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>smallint</type>, <type>int</type>, <type>bigint</type>, or
<type>bit</type>
</entry>
<entry>
same as argument data type
</entry>
<entry>the bitwise AND of all non-null input values, or null if none</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>bit_or</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>bit_or(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>smallint</type>, <type>int</type>, <type>bigint</type>, or
<type>bit</type>
</entry>
<entry>
same as argument data type
</entry>
<entry>the bitwise OR of all non-null input values, or null if none</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>bool_and</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>bool_and(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>bool</type>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>bool</type>
</entry>
<entry>true if all input values are true, otherwise false</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>bool_or</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>bool_or(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>bool</type>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>bool</type>
</entry>
<entry>true if at least one input value is true, otherwise false</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>count(*)</function></entry>
<entry></entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>number of input values</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>count(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function></entry>
<entry>any</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>
number of input values for which the value of <replaceable
class="parameter">expression</replaceable> is not null
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>every</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>every(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>bool</type>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>bool</type>
</entry>
<entry>equivalent to <function>bool_and</function></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>max(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function></entry>
<entry>any array, numeric, string, or date/time type</entry>
<entry>same as argument type</entry>
<entry>
maximum value of <replaceable
class="parameter">expression</replaceable> across all input
values
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>min(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function></entry>
<entry>any array, numeric, string, or date/time type</entry>
<entry>same as argument type</entry>
<entry>
minimum value of <replaceable
class="parameter">expression</replaceable> across all input
values
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>standard deviation</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>stddev(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>smallint</type>, <type>int</type>,
<type>bigint</type>, <type>real</type>, <type>double
precision</type>, or <type>numeric</type>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>double precision</type> for floating-point arguments,
otherwise <type>numeric</type>
</entry>
<entry>sample standard deviation of the input values</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>sum(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)</function></entry>
<entry>
<type>smallint</type>, <type>int</type>,
<type>bigint</type>, <type>real</type>, <type>double
precision</type>, <type>numeric</type>, or
<type>interval</type>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>bigint</type> for <type>smallint</type> or
<type>int</type> arguments, <type>numeric</type> for
<type>bigint</type> arguments, <type>double precision</type>
for floating-point arguments, otherwise the same as the
argument data type
</entry>
<entry>sum of <replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable> across all input values</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<indexterm>
<primary>variance</primary>
</indexterm>
<function>variance</function>(<replaceable class="parameter">expression</replaceable>)
</entry>
<entry>
<type>smallint</type>, <type>int</type>,
<type>bigint</type>, <type>real</type>, <type>double
precision</type>, or <type>numeric</type>
</entry>
<entry>
<type>double precision</type> for floating-point arguments,
otherwise <type>numeric</type>
</entry>
<entry>sample variance of the input values (square of the sample standard deviation)</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
It should be noted that except for <function>count</function>,
these functions return a null value when no rows are selected. In
particular, <function>sum</function> of no rows returns null, not
zero as one might expect. The <function>coalesce</function> function may be
used to substitute zero for null when necessary.
</para>
<note>
<indexterm>
<primary>ANY</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>SOME</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
Boolean aggregates <function>bool_and</function> and
<function>bool_or</function> correspond to standard SQL aggregates
<function>every</function> and <function>any</function> or
<function>some</function>.
As for <function>any</function> and <function>some</function>,
it seems that there is an ambiguity built into the standard syntax:
<programlisting>
SELECT b1 = ANY((SELECT b2 FROM t2 ...)) FROM t1 ...;
</programlisting>
Here <function>ANY</function> can be considered both as leading
to a subquery or as an aggregate if the select expression returns 1 row.
Thus the standard name cannot be given to these aggregates.
</para>
</note>
<note>
<para>
Users accustomed to working with other SQL database management
systems may be surprised by the performance of the
<function>count</function> aggregate when it is applied to the
entire table. A query like:
<programlisting>
SELECT count(*) FROM sometable;
</programlisting>
will be executed by <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> using a
sequential scan of the entire table.
</para>
</note>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-subquery">
<title>Subquery Expressions</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>EXISTS</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IN</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>NOT IN</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ANY</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ALL</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>SOME</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>subquery</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
This section describes the <acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant subquery
expressions available in <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>.
All of the expression forms documented in this section return
Boolean (true/false) results.
</para>
<sect2>
<title><literal>EXISTS</literal></title>
<synopsis>
EXISTS (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The argument of <token>EXISTS</token> is an arbitrary <command>SELECT</> statement,
or <firstterm>subquery</firstterm>. The
subquery is evaluated to determine whether it returns any rows.
If it returns at least one row, the result of <token>EXISTS</token> is
<quote>true</>; if the subquery returns no rows, the result of <token>EXISTS</token>
is <quote>false</>.
</para>
<para>
The subquery can refer to variables from the surrounding query,
which will act as constants during any one evaluation of the subquery.
</para>
<para>
The subquery will generally only be executed far enough to determine
whether at least one row is returned, not all the way to completion.
It is unwise to write a subquery that has any side effects (such as
calling sequence functions); whether the side effects occur or not
may be difficult to predict.
</para>
<para>
Since the result depends only on whether any rows are returned,
and not on the contents of those rows, the output list of the
subquery is normally uninteresting. A common coding convention is
to write all <literal>EXISTS</> tests in the form
<literal>EXISTS(SELECT 1 WHERE ...)</literal>. There are exceptions to
this rule however, such as subqueries that use <token>INTERSECT</token>.
</para>
<para>
This simple example is like an inner join on <literal>col2</>, but
it produces at most one output row for each <literal>tab1</> row,
even if there are multiple matching <literal>tab2</> rows:
<screen>
SELECT col1 FROM tab1
WHERE EXISTS(SELECT 1 FROM tab2 WHERE col2 = tab1.col2);
</screen>
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>IN</literal></title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression
is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result.
The result of <token>IN</token> is <quote>true</> if any equal subquery row is found.
The result is <quote>false</> if no equal row is found (including the special
case where the subquery returns no rows).
</para>
<para>
Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are
no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand row yields
null, the result of the <token>IN</token> construct will be null, not false.
This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations
of null values.
</para>
<para>
As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will
be evaluated completely.
</para>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The left-hand side of this form of <token>IN</token> is a row constructor,
as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors">.
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are
expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are
evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result.
The result of <token>IN</token> is <quote>true</> if any equal subquery row is found.
The result is <quote>false</> if no equal row is found (including the special
case where the subquery returns no rows).
</para>
<para>
As usual, null values in the rows are combined per
the normal rules of SQL Boolean expressions. Two rows are considered
equal if all their corresponding members are non-null and equal; the rows
are unequal if any corresponding members are non-null and unequal;
otherwise the result of that row comparison is unknown (null).
If all the per-row results are either unequal or null, with at least one
null, then the result of <token>IN</token> is null.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>NOT IN</literal></title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> NOT IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression
is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result.
The result of <token>NOT IN</token> is <quote>true</> if only unequal subquery rows
are found (including the special case where the subquery returns no rows).
The result is <quote>false</> if any equal row is found.
</para>
<para>
Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are
no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand row yields
null, the result of the <token>NOT IN</token> construct will be null, not true.
This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations
of null values.
</para>
<para>
As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will
be evaluated completely.
</para>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> NOT IN (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The left-hand side of this form of <token>NOT IN</token> is a row constructor,
as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors">.
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are
expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are
evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result.
The result of <token>NOT IN</token> is <quote>true</> if only unequal subquery rows
are found (including the special case where the subquery returns no rows).
The result is <quote>false</> if any equal row is found.
</para>
<para>
As usual, null values in the rows are combined per
the normal rules of SQL Boolean expressions. Two rows are considered
equal if all their corresponding members are non-null and equal; the rows
are unequal if any corresponding members are non-null and unequal;
otherwise the result of that row comparison is unknown (null).
If all the per-row results are either unequal or null, with at least one
null, then the result of <token>NOT IN</token> is null.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>ANY</literal>/<literal>SOME</literal></title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ANY (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> SOME (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression
is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result using the
given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean
result.
The result of <token>ANY</token> is <quote>true</> if any true result is obtained.
The result is <quote>false</> if no true result is found (including the special
case where the subquery returns no rows).
</para>
<para>
<token>SOME</token> is a synonym for <token>ANY</token>.
<token>IN</token> is equivalent to <literal>= ANY</literal>.
</para>
<para>
Note that if there are no successes and at least one right-hand row yields
null for the operator's result, the result of the <token>ANY</token> construct
will be null, not false.
This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations
of null values.
</para>
<para>
As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will
be evaluated completely.
</para>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</> ANY (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</> SOME (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The left-hand side of this form of <token>ANY</token> is a row constructor,
as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors">.
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are
expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are
evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result,
using the given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>.
The result of <token>ANY</token> is <quote>true</> if the comparison
returns true for any subquery row.
The result is <quote>false</> if the comparison returns false for every
subquery row (including the special case where the subquery returns no
rows).
The result is NULL if the comparison does not return true for any row,
and it returns NULL for at least one row.
</para>
<para>
See <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"> for details about the meaning
of a row-wise comparison.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>ALL</literal></title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ALL (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly one column. The left-hand expression
is evaluated and compared to each row of the subquery result using the
given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean
result.
The result of <token>ALL</token> is <quote>true</> if all rows yield true
(including the special case where the subquery returns no rows).
The result is <quote>false</> if any false result is found.
The result is NULL if the comparison does not return false for any row,
and it returns NULL for at least one row.
</para>
<para>
<token>NOT IN</token> is equivalent to <literal>&lt;&gt; ALL</literal>.
</para>
<para>
As with <token>EXISTS</token>, it's unwise to assume that the subquery will
be evaluated completely.
</para>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ALL (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The left-hand side of this form of <token>ALL</token> is a row constructor,
as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors">.
The right-hand side is a parenthesized
subquery, which must return exactly as many columns as there are
expressions in the left-hand row. The left-hand expressions are
evaluated and compared row-wise to each row of the subquery result,
using the given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>.
The result of <token>ALL</token> is <quote>true</> if the comparison
returns true for all subquery rows (including the special
case where the subquery returns no rows).
The result is <quote>false</> if the comparison returns false for any
subquery row.
The result is NULL if the comparison does not return false for any
subquery row, and it returns NULL for at least one row.
</para>
<para>
See <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"> for details about the meaning
of a row-wise comparison.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title>Row-wise Comparison</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-subquery">
<primary>comparison</primary>
<secondary>subquery result row</secondary>
</indexterm>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> (<replaceable>subquery</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The left-hand side is a row constructor,
as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors">.
The right-hand side is a parenthesized subquery, which must return exactly
as many columns as there are expressions in the left-hand row. Furthermore,
the subquery cannot return more than one row. (If it returns zero rows,
the result is taken to be null.) The left-hand side is evaluated and
compared row-wise to the single subquery result row.
</para>
<para>
See <xref linkend="row-wise-comparison"> for details about the meaning
of a row-wise comparison.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-comparisons">
<title>Row and Array Comparisons</title>
<indexterm>
<primary>IN</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>NOT IN</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ANY</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>ALL</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>SOME</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>row-wise comparison</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>comparison</primary>
<secondary>row-wise</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS DISTINCT FROM</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NOT DISTINCT FROM</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NULL</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>IS NOT NULL</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
This section describes several specialized constructs for making
multiple comparisons between groups of values. These forms are
syntactically related to the subquery forms of the previous section,
but do not involve subqueries.
The forms involving array subexpressions are
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> extensions; the rest are
<acronym>SQL</acronym>-compliant.
All of the expression forms documented in this section return
Boolean (true/false) results.
</para>
<sect2>
<title><literal>IN</literal></title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> IN (<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized list
of scalar expressions. The result is <quote>true</> if the left-hand expression's
result is equal to any of the right-hand expressions. This is a shorthand
notation for
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> = <replaceable>value1</replaceable>
OR
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> = <replaceable>value2</replaceable>
OR
...
</synopsis>
</para>
<para>
Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are
no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand expression yields
null, the result of the <token>IN</token> construct will be null, not false.
This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations
of null values.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>NOT IN</literal></title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> NOT IN (<replaceable>value</replaceable> <optional>, ...</optional>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized list
of scalar expressions. The result is <quote>true</quote> if the left-hand expression's
result is unequal to all of the right-hand expressions. This is a shorthand
notation for
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> &lt;&gt; <replaceable>value1</replaceable>
AND
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> &lt;&gt; <replaceable>value2</replaceable>
AND
...
</synopsis>
</para>
<para>
Note that if the left-hand expression yields null, or if there are
no equal right-hand values and at least one right-hand expression yields
null, the result of the <token>NOT IN</token> construct will be null, not true
as one might naively expect.
This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations
of null values.
</para>
<tip>
<para>
<literal>x NOT IN y</literal> is equivalent to <literal>NOT (x IN y)</literal> in all
cases. However, null values are much more likely to trip up the novice when
working with <token>NOT IN</token> than when working with <token>IN</token>.
It's best to express your condition positively if possible.
</para>
</tip>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>ANY</literal>/<literal>SOME</literal> (array)</title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ANY (<replaceable>array expression</replaceable>)
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> SOME (<replaceable>array expression</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized expression, which must yield an
array value.
The left-hand expression
is evaluated and compared to each element of the array using the
given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean
result.
The result of <token>ANY</token> is <quote>true</> if any true result is obtained.
The result is <quote>false</> if no true result is found (including the special
case where the array has zero elements).
</para>
<para>
If the array expression yields a null array, the result of
<token>ANY</token> will be null. If the left-hand expression yields null,
the result of <token>ANY</token> is ordinarily null (though a non-strict
comparison operator could possibly yield a different result).
Also, if the right-hand array contains any null elements and no true
comparison result is obtained, the result of <token>ANY</token>
will be null, not false (again, assuming a strict comparison operator).
This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations
of null values.
</para>
<para>
<token>SOME</token> is a synonym for <token>ANY</token>.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2>
<title><literal>ALL</literal> (array)</title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>expression</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> ALL (<replaceable>array expression</replaceable>)
</synopsis>
<para>
The right-hand side is a parenthesized expression, which must yield an
array value.
The left-hand expression
is evaluated and compared to each element of the array using the
given <replaceable>operator</replaceable>, which must yield a Boolean
result.
The result of <token>ALL</token> is <quote>true</> if all comparisons yield true
(including the special case where the array has zero elements).
The result is <quote>false</> if any false result is found.
</para>
<para>
If the array expression yields a null array, the result of
<token>ALL</token> will be null. If the left-hand expression yields null,
the result of <token>ALL</token> is ordinarily null (though a non-strict
comparison operator could possibly yield a different result).
Also, if the right-hand array contains any null elements and no false
comparison result is obtained, the result of <token>ALL</token>
will be null, not true (again, assuming a strict comparison operator).
This is in accordance with SQL's normal rules for Boolean combinations
of null values.
</para>
</sect2>
<sect2 id="row-wise-comparison">
<title>Row-wise Comparison</title>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> <replaceable>operator</replaceable> <replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable>
</synopsis>
<para>
Each side is a row constructor,
as described in <xref linkend="sql-syntax-row-constructors">.
The two row values must have the same number of fields.
Each side is evaluated and they are compared row-wise. Row comparisons
are allowed when the <replaceable>operator</replaceable> is
<literal>=</>,
<literal>&lt;&gt;</>,
<literal>&lt;</>,
<literal>&lt;=</>,
<literal>&gt;</> or
<literal>&gt;=</>,
or has semantics similar to one of these. (To be specific, an operator
can be a row comparison operator if it is a member of a btree operator
class, or is the negator of the <literal>=</> member of a btree operator
class.)
</para>
<para>
The <literal>=</> and <literal>&lt;&gt;</> cases work slightly differently
from the others. Two rows are considered
equal if all their corresponding members are non-null and equal; the rows
are unequal if any corresponding members are non-null and unequal;
otherwise the result of the row comparison is unknown (null).
</para>
<para>
For the <literal>&lt;</>, <literal>&lt;=</>, <literal>&gt;</> and
<literal>&gt;=</> cases, the row elements are compared left-to-right,
stopping as soon as an unequal or null pair of elements is found.
If either of this pair of elements is null, the result of the
row comparison is unknown (null); otherwise comparison of this pair
of elements determines the result. For example,
<literal>ROW(1,2,NULL) &lt; ROW(1,3,0)</>
yields true, not null, because the third pair of elements are not
considered.
</para>
<note>
<para>
Prior to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> 8.2, the
<literal>&lt;</>, <literal>&lt;=</>, <literal>&gt;</> and <literal>&gt;=</>
cases were not handled per SQL specification. A comparison like
<literal>ROW(a,b) &lt; ROW(c,d)</>
was implemented as
<literal>a &lt; c AND b &lt; d</>
whereas the correct behavior is equivalent to
<literal>a &lt; c OR (a = c AND b &lt; d)</>.
</para>
</note>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IS DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable>
</synopsis>
<para>
This construct is similar to a <literal>&lt;&gt;</literal> row comparison,
but it does not yield null for null inputs. Instead, any null value is
considered unequal to (distinct from) any non-null value, and any two
nulls are considered equal (not distinct). Thus the result will always
be either true or false, never null.
</para>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IS NOT DISTINCT FROM <replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable>
</synopsis>
<para>
This construct is similar to a <literal>=</literal> row comparison,
but it does not yield null for null inputs. Instead, any null value is
considered unequal to (distinct from) any non-null value, and any two
nulls are considered equal (not distinct). Thus the result will always
be either true or false, never null.
</para>
<synopsis>
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IS NULL
<replaceable>row_constructor</replaceable> IS NOT NULL
</synopsis>
<para>
These constructs test a row value for null or not null. A row value
is considered not null if it has at least one field that is not null.
</para>
</sect2>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-srf">
<title>Set Returning Functions</title>
<indexterm zone="functions-srf">
<primary>set returning functions</primary>
<secondary>functions</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm>
<primary>generate_series</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
This section describes functions that possibly return more than one row.
Currently the only functions in this class are series generating functions,
as detailed in <xref linkend="functions-srf-series">.
</para>
<table id="functions-srf-series">
<title>Series Generating Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="4">
<thead>
<row>
<entry>Function</entry>
<entry>Argument Type</entry>
<entry>Return Type</entry>
<entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>generate_series</function>(<parameter>start</parameter>, <parameter>stop</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type> or <type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry><type>setof int</type> or <type>setof bigint</type> (same as argument type)</entry>
<entry>
Generate a series of values, from <parameter>start</parameter> to <parameter>stop</parameter>
with a step size of one
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>generate_series</function>(<parameter>start</parameter>, <parameter>stop</parameter>, <parameter>step</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type> or <type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry><type>setof int</type> or <type>setof bigint</type> (same as argument type)</entry>
<entry>
Generate a series of values, from <parameter>start</parameter> to <parameter>stop</parameter>
with a step size of <parameter>step</parameter>
</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
When <parameter>step</parameter> is positive, zero rows are returned if
<parameter>start</parameter> is greater than <parameter>stop</parameter>.
Conversely, when <parameter>step</parameter> is negative, zero rows are
returned if <parameter>start</parameter> is less than <parameter>stop</parameter>.
Zero rows are also returned for <literal>NULL</literal> inputs. It is an error
for <parameter>step</parameter> to be zero. Some examples follow:
<programlisting>
select * from generate_series(2,4);
generate_series
-----------------
2
3
4
(3 rows)
select * from generate_series(5,1,-2);
generate_series
-----------------
5
3
1
(3 rows)
select * from generate_series(4,3);
generate_series
-----------------
(0 rows)
select current_date + s.a as dates from generate_series(0,14,7) as s(a);
dates
------------
2004-02-05
2004-02-12
2004-02-19
(3 rows)
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-info">
<title>System Information Functions</title>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-info-session-table"> shows several
functions that extract session and system information.
</para>
<table id="functions-info-session-table">
<title>Session Information Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry></row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>current_database</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry>name of current database</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>current_schema</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry>name of current schema</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>current_schemas</function>(<type>boolean</type>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>name[]</type></entry>
<entry>names of schemas in search path optionally including implicit schemas</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>current_user</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry>user name of current execution context</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>inet_client_addr</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>inet</type></entry>
<entry>address of the remote connection</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>inet_client_port</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>port of the remote connection</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>inet_server_addr</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>inet</type></entry>
<entry>address of the local connection</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>inet_server_port</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>port of the local connection</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>session_user</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry>session user name</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_postmaster_start_time</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>timestamp with time zone</type></entry>
<entry><command>postmaster</> start time</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>user</function></literal></entry>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry>equivalent to <function>current_user</function></entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>version</function>()</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry><productname>PostgreSQL</> version information</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>user</primary>
<secondary>current</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>schema</primary>
<secondary>current</secondary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>search path</primary>
<secondary>current</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The <function>session_user</function> is normally the user who initiated
the current database connection; but superusers can change this setting
with <xref linkend="sql-set-session-authorization" endterm="sql-set-session-authorization-title">.
The <function>current_user</function> is the user identifier
that is applicable for permission checking. Normally, it is equal
to the session user, but it can be changed with
<xref linkend="sql-set-role" endterm="sql-set-role-title">.
It also changes during the execution of
functions with the attribute <literal>SECURITY DEFINER</literal>.
In Unix parlance, the session user is the <quote>real user</quote> and
the current user is the <quote>effective user</quote>.
</para>
<note>
<para>
<function>current_user</function>, <function>session_user</function>, and
<function>user</function> have special syntactic status in <acronym>SQL</acronym>:
they must be called without trailing parentheses.
</para>
</note>
<para>
<function>current_schema</function> returns the name of the schema that is
at the front of the search path (or a null value if the search path is
empty). This is the schema that will be used for any tables or
other named objects that are created without specifying a target schema.
<function>current_schemas(boolean)</function> returns an array of the names of all
schemas presently in the search path. The Boolean option determines whether or not
implicitly included system schemas such as <literal>pg_catalog</> are included in the search
path returned.
</para>
<note>
<para>
The search path may be altered at run time. The command is:
<programlisting>
SET search_path TO <replaceable>schema</> <optional>, <replaceable>schema</>, ...</optional>
</programlisting>
</para>
</note>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>inet_client_addr</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>inet_client_port</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>inet_server_addr</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>inet_server_port</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>inet_client_addr</function> returns the IP address of the
current client, and <function>inet_client_port</function> returns the
port number.
<function>inet_server_addr</function> returns the IP address on which
the server accepted the current connection, and
<function>inet_server_port</function> returns the port number.
All these functions return NULL if the current connection is via a
Unix-domain socket.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_postmaster_start_time</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>pg_postmaster_start_time</function> returns the
<type>timestamp with time zone</type> when the
<command>postmaster</> started.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>version</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>version</function> returns a string describing the
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> server's version.
</para>
<indexterm>
<primary>privilege</primary>
<secondary>querying</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-info-access-table"> lists functions that
allow the user to query object access privileges programmatically.
See <xref linkend="ddl-priv"> for more information about
privileges.
</para>
<table id="functions-info-access-table">
<title>Access Privilege Inquiry Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry></row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_table_privilege</function>(<parameter>user</parameter>,
<parameter>table</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does user have privilege for table</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_table_privilege</function>(<parameter>table</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does current user have privilege for table</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_database_privilege</function>(<parameter>user</parameter>,
<parameter>database</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does user have privilege for database</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_database_privilege</function>(<parameter>database</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does current user have privilege for database</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_function_privilege</function>(<parameter>user</parameter>,
<parameter>function</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does user have privilege for function</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_function_privilege</function>(<parameter>function</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does current user have privilege for function</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_language_privilege</function>(<parameter>user</parameter>,
<parameter>language</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does user have privilege for language</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_language_privilege</function>(<parameter>language</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does current user have privilege for language</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_has_role</function>(<parameter>user</parameter>,
<parameter>role</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does user have privilege for role</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_has_role</function>(<parameter>role</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does current user have privilege for role</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_schema_privilege</function>(<parameter>user</parameter>,
<parameter>schema</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does user have privilege for schema</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_schema_privilege</function>(<parameter>schema</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does current user have privilege for schema</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_tablespace_privilege</function>(<parameter>user</parameter>,
<parameter>tablespace</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does user have privilege for tablespace</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>has_tablespace_privilege</function>(<parameter>tablespace</parameter>,
<parameter>privilege</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>does current user have privilege for tablespace</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>has_table_privilege</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>has_database_privilege</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>has_function_privilege</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>has_language_privilege</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_has_role</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>has_schema_privilege</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>has_tablespace_privilege</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>has_table_privilege</function> checks whether a user
can access a table in a particular way. The user can be
specified by name or by OID
(<literal>pg_authid.oid</literal>), or if the argument is
omitted
<function>current_user</function> is assumed. The table can be specified
by name or by OID. (Thus, there are actually six variants of
<function>has_table_privilege</function>, which can be distinguished by
the number and types of their arguments.) When specifying by name,
the name can be schema-qualified if necessary.
The desired access privilege type
is specified by a text string, which must evaluate to one of the
values <literal>SELECT</literal>, <literal>INSERT</literal>, <literal>UPDATE</literal>,
<literal>DELETE</literal>, <literal>RULE</literal>, <literal>REFERENCES</literal>, or
<literal>TRIGGER</literal>. (Case of the string is not significant, however.)
An example is:
<programlisting>
SELECT has_table_privilege('myschema.mytable', 'select');
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<function>has_database_privilege</function> checks whether a user
can access a database in a particular way. The possibilities for its
arguments are analogous to <function>has_table_privilege</function>.
The desired access privilege type must evaluate to
<literal>CREATE</literal>,
<literal>TEMPORARY</literal>, or
<literal>TEMP</literal> (which is equivalent to
<literal>TEMPORARY</literal>).
</para>
<para>
<function>has_function_privilege</function> checks whether a user
can access a function in a particular way. The possibilities for its
arguments are analogous to <function>has_table_privilege</function>.
When specifying a function by a text string rather than by OID,
the allowed input is the same as for the <type>regprocedure</> data type
(see <xref linkend="datatype-oid">).
The desired access privilege type must evaluate to
<literal>EXECUTE</literal>.
An example is:
<programlisting>
SELECT has_function_privilege('joeuser', 'myfunc(int, text)', 'execute');
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<function>has_language_privilege</function> checks whether a user
can access a procedural language in a particular way. The possibilities
for its arguments are analogous to <function>has_table_privilege</function>.
The desired access privilege type must evaluate to
<literal>USAGE</literal>.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_has_role</function> checks whether a user
can access a role in a particular way. The possibilities for its
arguments are analogous to <function>has_table_privilege</function>.
The desired access privilege type must evaluate to
<literal>MEMBER</literal> or
<literal>USAGE</literal>.
<literal>MEMBER</literal> denotes direct or indirect membership in
the role (that is, the right to do <literal>SET ROLE</>), while
<literal>USAGE</literal> denotes whether the privileges of the role
are immediately available without doing <literal>SET ROLE</>.
</para>
<para>
<function>has_schema_privilege</function> checks whether a user
can access a schema in a particular way. The possibilities for its
arguments are analogous to <function>has_table_privilege</function>.
The desired access privilege type must evaluate to
<literal>CREATE</literal> or
<literal>USAGE</literal>.
</para>
<para>
<function>has_tablespace_privilege</function> checks whether a user
can access a tablespace in a particular way. The possibilities for its
arguments are analogous to <function>has_table_privilege</function>.
The desired access privilege type must evaluate to
<literal>CREATE</literal>.
</para>
<para>
To test whether a user holds a grant option on the privilege,
append <literal> WITH GRANT OPTION</literal> to the privilege key
word; for example <literal>'UPDATE WITH GRANT OPTION'</literal>.
</para>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-info-schema-table"> shows functions that
determine whether a certain object is <firstterm>visible</> in the
current schema search path. A table is said to be visible if its
containing schema is in the search path and no table of the same
name appears earlier in the search path. This is equivalent to the
statement that the table can be referenced by name without explicit
schema qualification. For example, to list the names of all
visible tables:
<programlisting>
SELECT relname FROM pg_class WHERE pg_table_is_visible(oid);
</programlisting>
</para>
<table id="functions-info-schema-table">
<title>Schema Visibility Inquiry Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry></row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_table_is_visible</function>(<parameter>table_oid</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>is table visible in search path</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_type_is_visible</function>(<parameter>type_oid</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>is type (or domain) visible in search path</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_function_is_visible</function>(<parameter>function_oid</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>is function visible in search path</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_operator_is_visible</function>(<parameter>operator_oid</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>is operator visible in search path</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_opclass_is_visible</function>(<parameter>opclass_oid</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>is operator class visible in search path</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_conversion_is_visible</function>(<parameter>conversion_oid</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>is conversion visible in search path</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_table_is_visible</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_type_is_visible</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_function_is_visible</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_operator_is_visible</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_opclass_is_visible</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_conversion_is_visible</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>pg_table_is_visible</function> performs the check for
tables (or views, or any other kind of <literal>pg_class</> entry).
<function>pg_type_is_visible</function>,
<function>pg_function_is_visible</function>,
<function>pg_operator_is_visible</function>,
<function>pg_opclass_is_visible</function>, and
<function>pg_conversion_is_visible</function> perform the same sort of
visibility check for types (and domains), functions, operators, operator classes
and conversions, respectively. For functions and operators, an object in
the search path is visible if there is no object of the same name
<emphasis>and argument data type(s)</> earlier in the path. For
operator classes, both name and associated index access method are
considered.
</para>
<para>
All these functions require object OIDs to identify the object to be
checked. If you want to test an object by name, it is convenient to use
the OID alias types (<type>regclass</>, <type>regtype</>,
<type>regprocedure</>, or <type>regoperator</>), for example
<programlisting>
SELECT pg_type_is_visible('myschema.widget'::regtype);
</programlisting>
Note that it would not make much sense to test an unqualified name in
this way &mdash; if the name can be recognized at all, it must be visible.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>format_type</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_viewdef</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_ruledef</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_indexdef</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_triggerdef</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_constraintdef</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_expr</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_userbyid</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_get_serial_sequence</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>pg_tablespace_databases</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-info-catalog-table"> lists functions that
extract information from the system catalogs.
</para>
<table id="functions-info-catalog-table">
<title>System Catalog Information Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry></row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>format_type</function>(<parameter>type_oid</parameter>, <parameter>typemod</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get SQL name of a data type</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_viewdef</function>(<parameter>view_name</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE VIEW</> command for view (<emphasis>deprecated</emphasis>)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_viewdef</function>(<parameter>view_name</parameter>, <parameter>pretty_bool</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE VIEW</> command for view (<emphasis>deprecated</emphasis>)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_viewdef</function>(<parameter>view_oid</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE VIEW</> command for view</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_viewdef</function>(<parameter>view_oid</parameter>, <parameter>pretty_bool</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE VIEW</> command for view</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_ruledef</function>(<parameter>rule_oid</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE RULE</> command for rule</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_ruledef</function>(<parameter>rule_oid</parameter>, <parameter>pretty_bool</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE RULE</> command for rule</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_indexdef</function>(<parameter>index_oid</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE INDEX</> command for index</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_indexdef</function>(<parameter>index_oid</parameter>, <parameter>column_no</>, <parameter>pretty_bool</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE INDEX</> command for index,
or definition of just one index column when
<parameter>column_no</> is not zero</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><function>pg_get_triggerdef</function>(<parameter>trigger_oid</parameter>)</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get <command>CREATE [ CONSTRAINT ] TRIGGER</> command for trigger</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_constraintdef</function>(<parameter>constraint_oid</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get definition of a constraint</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_constraintdef</function>(<parameter>constraint_oid</parameter>, <parameter>pretty_bool</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get definition of a constraint</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_expr</function>(<parameter>expr_text</parameter>, <parameter>relation_oid</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>decompile internal form of an expression, assuming that any Vars
in it refer to the relation indicated by the second parameter</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_expr</function>(<parameter>expr_text</parameter>, <parameter>relation_oid</>, <parameter>pretty_bool</>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>decompile internal form of an expression, assuming that any Vars
in it refer to the relation indicated by the second parameter</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_userbyid</function>(<parameter>roleid</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>name</type></entry>
<entry>get role name with given ID</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_get_serial_sequence</function>(<parameter>table_name</parameter>, <parameter>column_name</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get name of the sequence that a <type>serial</type> or <type>bigserial</type> column
uses</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>pg_tablespace_databases</function>(<parameter>tablespace_oid</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>setof oid</type></entry>
<entry>get the set of database OIDs that have objects in the tablespace</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
<function>format_type</function> returns the SQL name of a data type that
is identified by its type OID and possibly a type modifier. Pass NULL
for the type modifier if no specific modifier is known.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_get_viewdef</function>,
<function>pg_get_ruledef</function>,
<function>pg_get_indexdef</function>,
<function>pg_get_triggerdef</function>, and
<function>pg_get_constraintdef</function> respectively
reconstruct the creating command for a view, rule, index, trigger, or
constraint. (Note that this is a decompiled reconstruction, not
the original text of the command.)
<function>pg_get_expr</function> decompiles the internal form of an
individual expression, such as the default value for a column. It
may be useful when examining the contents of system catalogs.
Most of these functions come in two
variants, one of which can optionally <quote>pretty-print</> the result.
The pretty-printed format is more readable, but the default format is more
likely to be
interpreted the same way by future versions of <productname>PostgreSQL</>;
avoid using pretty-printed output for dump purposes.
Passing <literal>false</> for the pretty-print parameter yields the
same result as the variant that does not have the parameter at all.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_get_userbyid</function> extracts a role's name given
its OID.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_get_serial_sequence</function> fetches the name of the
sequence associated with a <type>serial</> or <type>bigserial</>
column. The name is suitably formatted for passing to the sequence
functions (see <xref linkend="functions-sequence">). NULL is
returned if the column does not have an associated sequence.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_tablespace_databases</function> allows a tablespace to
be examined. It returns the set of OIDs of databases that have objects
stored in the tablespace. If this function returns any rows, the
tablespace is not empty and cannot be dropped. To
display the specific objects populating the tablespace, you will need
to connect to the databases identified by
<function>pg_tablespace_databases</function> and query their
<structname>pg_class</> catalogs.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>obj_description</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>col_description</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-info">
<primary>comment</primary>
<secondary sortas="database objects">about database objects</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The functions shown in <xref
linkend="functions-info-comment-table"> extract comments
previously stored with the <command>COMMENT</command> command. A
null value is returned if no comment could be found matching the
specified parameters.
</para>
<table id="functions-info-comment-table">
<title>Comment Information Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry></row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>obj_description</function>(<parameter>object_oid</parameter>, <parameter>catalog_name</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get comment for a database object</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>obj_description</function>(<parameter>object_oid</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get comment for a database object (<emphasis>deprecated</emphasis>)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry><literal><function>col_description</function>(<parameter>table_oid</parameter>, <parameter>column_number</parameter>)</literal></entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>get comment for a table column</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
The two-parameter form of <function>obj_description</function> returns the
comment for a database object specified by its OID and the name of the
containing system catalog. For example,
<literal>obj_description(123456,'pg_class')</literal>
would retrieve the comment for a table with OID 123456.
The one-parameter form of <function>obj_description</function> requires only
the object OID. It is now deprecated since there is no guarantee that
OIDs are unique across different system catalogs; therefore, the wrong
comment could be returned.
</para>
<para>
<function>col_description</function> returns the comment for a table column,
which is specified by the OID of its table and its column number.
<function>obj_description</function> cannot be used for table columns since
columns do not have OIDs of their own.
</para>
</sect1>
<sect1 id="functions-admin">
<title>System Administration Functions</title>
<para>
<xref linkend="functions-admin-set-table"> shows the functions
available to query and alter run-time configuration parameters.
</para>
<table id="functions-admin-set-table">
<title>Configuration Settings Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry></row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>current_setting</function>(<parameter>setting_name</parameter>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>current value of setting</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>set_config(<parameter>setting_name</parameter>,
<parameter>new_value</parameter>,
<parameter>is_local</parameter>)</function></literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>set parameter and return new value</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>SET</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>SHOW</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>configuration</primary>
<secondary sortas="server">of the server</secondary>
<tertiary>functions</tertiary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The function <function>current_setting</function> yields the
current value of the setting <parameter>setting_name</parameter>.
It corresponds to the <acronym>SQL</acronym> command
<command>SHOW</command>. An example:
<programlisting>
SELECT current_setting('datestyle');
current_setting
-----------------
ISO, MDY
(1 row)
</programlisting>
</para>
<para>
<function>set_config</function> sets the parameter
<parameter>setting_name</parameter> to
<parameter>new_value</parameter>. If
<parameter>is_local</parameter> is <literal>true</literal>, the
new value will only apply to the current transaction. If you want
the new value to apply for the current session, use
<literal>false</literal> instead. The function corresponds to the
SQL command <command>SET</command>. An example:
<programlisting>
SELECT set_config('log_statement_stats', 'off', false);
set_config
------------
off
(1 row)
</programlisting>
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_cancel_backend</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_reload_conf</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_rotate_logfile</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>signal</primary>
<secondary sortas="backend">backend processes</secondary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The functions shown in <xref
linkend="functions-admin-signal-table"> send control signals to
other server processes. Use of these functions is restricted
to superusers.
</para>
<table id="functions-admin-signal-table">
<title>Server Signalling Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_cancel_backend</function>(<parameter>pid</parameter> <type>int</>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>Cancel a backend's current query</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_reload_conf</function>()</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>Cause server processes to reload their configuration files</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_rotate_logfile</function>()</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>boolean</type></entry>
<entry>Rotate server's log file</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
Each of these functions returns <literal>true</literal> if
successful and <literal>false</literal> otherwise.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_cancel_backend</> sends a query cancel
(<systemitem>SIGINT</>) signal to a backend process identified by
process ID. The process ID of an active backend can be found from
the <structfield>procpid</structfield> column in the
<structname>pg_stat_activity</structname> view, or by listing the
<command>postgres</command> processes on the server with
<application>ps</>.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_reload_conf</> sends a <systemitem>SIGHUP</> signal
to the <application>postmaster</>, causing the configuration files
to be reloaded by all server processes.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_rotate_logfile</> signals the log-file manager to switch
to a new output file immediately. This works only when
<varname>redirect_stderr</> is used for logging, since otherwise there
is no log-file manager subprocess.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_start_backup</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_stop_backup</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>backup</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
The functions shown in <xref
linkend="functions-admin-backup-table"> assist in making on-line backups.
Use of these functions is restricted to superusers.
</para>
<table id="functions-admin-backup-table">
<title>Backup Control Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_start_backup</function>(<parameter>label</> <type>text</>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Set up for performing on-line backup</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_stop_backup</function>()</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Finish performing on-line backup</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
<function>pg_start_backup</> accepts a single parameter which is an
arbitrary user-defined label for the backup. (Typically this would be
the name under which the backup dump file will be stored.) The function
writes a backup label file into the database cluster's data directory,
and then returns the backup's starting WAL offset as text. (The user
need not pay any attention to this result value, but it is provided in
case it is of use.)
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_stop_backup</> removes the label file created by
<function>pg_start_backup</>, and instead creates a backup history file in
the WAL archive area. The history file includes the label given to
<function>pg_start_backup</>, the starting and ending WAL offsets for
the backup, and the starting and ending times of the backup. The return
value is the backup's ending WAL offset (which again may be of little
interest).
</para>
<para>
For details about proper usage of these functions, see
<xref linkend="backup-online">.
</para>
<para>
The functions shown in <xref linkend="functions-admin-dbsize"> calculate
the actual disk space usage of database objects.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_column_size</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_tablespace_size</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_database_size</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_relation_size</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_total_relation_size</primary>
</indexterm>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_size_pretty</primary>
</indexterm>
<table id="functions-admin-dbsize">
<title>Database Object Size Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry><function>pg_column_size</function>(<type>any</type>)</entry>
<entry><type>int</type></entry>
<entry>Number of bytes used to store a particular value (possibly compressed)</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_tablespace_size</function>(<type>oid</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Disk space used by the tablespace with the specified OID</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_tablespace_size</function>(<type>name</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Disk space used by the tablespace with the specified name</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_database_size</function>(<type>oid</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Disk space used by the database with the specified OID</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_database_size</function>(<type>name</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Disk space used by the database with the specified name</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_relation_size</function>(<type>oid</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>Disk space used by the table or index with the specified OID</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_relation_size</function>(<type>text</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>
Disk space used by the table or index with the specified name.
The table name may be qualified with a schema name
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_total_relation_size</function>(<type>oid</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>
Total disk space used by the table with the specified OID,
including indexes and toasted data
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_total_relation_size</function>(<type>text</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>bigint</type></entry>
<entry>
Total disk space used by the table with the specified name,
including indexes and toasted data. The table name may be
qualified with a schema name
</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_size_pretty</function>(<type>bigint</type>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Converts a size in bytes into a human-readable format with size units</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<para>
<function>pg_column_size</> shows the space used to store any individual
data value.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_tablespace_size</> and <function>pg_database_size</> accept
the OID or name of a tablespace or database, and return the total disk
space used therein.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_relation_size</> accepts the OID or name of a table, index or
toast table, and returns the size in bytes.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_total_relation_size</> accepts the OID or name of a
table or toast table, and returns the size in bytes of the data
and all associated indexes and toast tables.
</para>
<para>
<function>pg_size_pretty</> can be used to format the result of one of
the other functions in a human-readable way, using kB, MB, GB or TB as
appropriate.
</para>
<para>
The functions shown in <xref
linkend="functions-admin-genfile"> provide native file access to
files on the machine hosting the server. Only files within the
database cluster directory and the <varname>log_directory</> may be
accessed. Use a relative path for files within the cluster directory,
and a path matching the <varname>log_directory</> configuration setting
for log files. Use of these functions is restricted to superusers.
</para>
<table id="functions-admin-genfile">
<title>Generic File Access Functions</title>
<tgroup cols="3">
<thead>
<row><entry>Name</entry> <entry>Return Type</entry> <entry>Description</entry>
</row>
</thead>
<tbody>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_ls_dir</function>(<parameter>dirname</> <type>text</>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>setof text</type></entry>
<entry>List the contents of a directory</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_read_file</function>(<parameter>filename</> <type>text</>, <parameter>offset</> <type>bigint</>, <parameter>length</> <type>bigint</>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>text</type></entry>
<entry>Return the contents of a text file</entry>
</row>
<row>
<entry>
<literal><function>pg_stat_file</function>(<parameter>filename</> <type>text</>)</literal>
</entry>
<entry><type>record</type></entry>
<entry>Return information about a file</entry>
</row>
</tbody>
</tgroup>
</table>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_ls_dir</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>pg_ls_dir</> returns all the names in the specified
directory, except the special entries <quote><literal>.</></> and
<quote><literal>..</></>.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_read_file</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>pg_read_file</> returns part of a text file, starting
at the given <parameter>offset</>, returning at most <parameter>length</>
bytes (less if the end of file is reached first). If <parameter>offset</>
is negative, it is relative to the end of the file.
</para>
<indexterm zone="functions-admin">
<primary>pg_stat_file</primary>
</indexterm>
<para>
<function>pg_stat_file</> returns a record containing the file
size, last accessed time stamp, last modified time stamp,
last file status change time stamp (Unix platforms only),
file creation timestamp (Windows only), and a <type>boolean</type> indicating
if it is a directory. Typical usages include:
<programlisting>
SELECT * FROM pg_stat_file('filename');
SELECT (pg_stat_file('filename')).modification;
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>
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