diff --git a/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml b/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml
index 3ae7d241e7..727b00f0ea 100644
--- a/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml
+++ b/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-<!-- $PostgreSQL: pgsql/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml,v 1.37 2005/01/09 17:47:30 tgl Exp $ -->
+<!-- $PostgreSQL: pgsql/doc/src/sgml/ddl.sgml,v 1.38 2005/01/17 01:29:02 tgl Exp $ -->
<chapter id="ddl">
<title>Data Definition</title>
@@ -163,6 +163,684 @@ DROP TABLE products;
</para>
</sect1>
+ <sect1 id="ddl-default">
+ <title>Default Values</title>
+
+ <indexterm zone="ddl-default">
+ <primary>default value</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ A column can be assigned a default value. When a new row is
+ created and no values are specified for some of the columns, the
+ columns will be filled with their respective default values. A
+ data manipulation command can also request explicitly that a column
+ be set to its default value, without having to know what that value is.
+ (Details about data manipulation commands are in <xref linkend="dml">.)
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ <indexterm><primary>null value</primary><secondary>default value</secondary></indexterm>
+ If no default value is declared explicitly, the default value is the
+ null value. This usually makes sense because a null value can
+ be considered to represent unknown data.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ In a table definition, default values are listed after the column
+ data type. For example:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric <emphasis>DEFAULT 9.99</emphasis>
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ The default value may be an expression, which will be
+ evaluated whenever the default value is inserted
+ (<emphasis>not</emphasis> when the table is created). A common example
+ is that a timestamp column may have a default of <literal>now()</>,
+ so that it gets set to the time of row insertion. Another common
+ example is generating a <quote>serial number</> for each row.
+ In <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> this is typically done by
+ something like
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer <emphasis>DEFAULT nextval('products_product_no_seq')</emphasis>,
+ ...
+);
+</programlisting>
+ where the <literal>nextval()</> function supplies successive values
+ from a <firstterm>sequence object</> (see <xref
+ linkend="functions-sequence">). This arrangement is sufficiently common
+ that there's a special shorthand for it:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no <emphasis>SERIAL</emphasis>,
+ ...
+);
+</programlisting>
+ The <literal>SERIAL</> shorthand is discussed further in <xref
+ linkend="datatype-serial">.
+ </para>
+ </sect1>
+
+ <sect1 id="ddl-constraints">
+ <title>Constraints</title>
+
+ <indexterm zone="ddl-constraints">
+ <primary>constraint</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ Data types are a way to limit the kind of data that can be stored
+ in a table. For many applications, however, the constraint they
+ provide is too coarse. For example, a column containing a product
+ price should probably only accept positive values. But there is no
+ data type that accepts only positive numbers. Another issue is
+ that you might want to constrain column data with respect to other
+ columns or rows. For example, in a table containing product
+ information, there should only be one row for each product number.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ To that end, SQL allows you to define constraints on columns and
+ tables. Constraints give you as much control over the data in your
+ tables as you wish. If a user attempts to store data in a column
+ that would violate a constraint, an error is raised. This applies
+ even if the value came from the default value definition.
+ </para>
+
+ <sect2>
+ <title>Check Constraints</title>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>check constraint</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>constraint</primary>
+ <secondary>check</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ A check constraint is the most generic constraint type. It allows
+ you to specify that the value in a certain column must satisfy a
+ Boolean (truth-value) expression. For instance, to require positive
+ product prices, you could use:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric <emphasis>CHECK (price > 0)</emphasis>
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ As you see, the constraint definition comes after the data type,
+ just like default value definitions. Default values and
+ constraints can be listed in any order. A check constraint
+ consists of the key word <literal>CHECK</literal> followed by an
+ expression in parentheses. The check constraint expression should
+ involve the column thus constrained, otherwise the constraint
+ would not make too much sense.
+ </para>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>constraint</primary>
+ <secondary>name</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ You can also give the constraint a separate name. This clarifies
+ error messages and allows you to refer to the constraint when you
+ need to change it. The syntax is:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric <emphasis>CONSTRAINT positive_price</emphasis> CHECK (price > 0)
+);
+</programlisting>
+ So, to specify a named constraint, use the key word
+ <literal>CONSTRAINT</literal> followed by an identifier followed
+ by the constraint definition. (If you don't specify a constraint
+ name in this way, the system chooses a name for you.)
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ A check constraint can also refer to several columns. Say you
+ store a regular price and a discounted price, and you want to
+ ensure that the discounted price is lower than the regular price.
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric CHECK (price > 0),
+ discounted_price numeric CHECK (discounted_price > 0),
+ <emphasis>CHECK (price > discounted_price)</emphasis>
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ The first two constraints should look familiar. The third one
+ uses a new syntax. It is not attached to a particular column,
+ instead it appears as a separate item in the comma-separated
+ column list. Column definitions and these constraint
+ definitions can be listed in mixed order.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ We say that the first two constraints are column constraints, whereas the
+ third one is a table constraint because it is written separately
+ from any one column definition. Column constraints can also be
+ written as table constraints, while the reverse is not necessarily
+ possible, since a column constraint is supposed to refer to only the
+ column it is attached to. (<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> doesn't
+ enforce that rule, but you should follow it if you want your table
+ definitions to work with other database systems.) The above example could
+ also be written as
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric,
+ CHECK (price > 0),
+ discounted_price numeric,
+ CHECK (discounted_price > 0),
+ CHECK (price > discounted_price)
+);
+</programlisting>
+ or even
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric CHECK (price > 0),
+ discounted_price numeric,
+ CHECK (discounted_price > 0 AND price > discounted_price)
+);
+</programlisting>
+ It's a matter of taste.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Names can be assigned to table constraints in just the same way as
+ for column constraints:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric,
+ CHECK (price > 0),
+ discounted_price numeric,
+ CHECK (discounted_price > 0),
+ <emphasis>CONSTRAINT valid_discount</> CHECK (price > discounted_price)
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>null value</primary>
+ <secondary sortas="check constraints">with check constraints</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ It should be noted that a check constraint is satisfied if the
+ check expression evaluates to true or the null value. Since most
+ expressions will evaluate to the null value if any operand is null,
+ they will not prevent null values in the constrained columns. To
+ ensure that a column does not contain null values, the not-null
+ constraint described in the next section can be used.
+ </para>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+ <title>Not-Null Constraints</title>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>not-null constraint</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>constraint</primary>
+ <secondary>NOT NULL</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ A not-null constraint simply specifies that a column must not
+ assume the null value. A syntax example:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer <emphasis>NOT NULL</emphasis>,
+ name text <emphasis>NOT NULL</emphasis>,
+ price numeric
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ A not-null constraint is always written as a column constraint. A
+ not-null constraint is functionally equivalent to creating a check
+ constraint <literal>CHECK (<replaceable>column_name</replaceable>
+ IS NOT NULL)</literal>, but in
+ <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> creating an explicit
+ not-null constraint is more efficient. The drawback is that you
+ cannot give explicit names to not-null constraints created that
+ way.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Of course, a column can have more than one constraint. Just write
+ the constraints one after another:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer NOT NULL,
+ name text NOT NULL,
+ price numeric NOT NULL CHECK (price > 0)
+);
+</programlisting>
+ The order doesn't matter. It does not necessarily determine in which
+ order the constraints are checked.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ The <literal>NOT NULL</literal> constraint has an inverse: the
+ <literal>NULL</literal> constraint. This does not mean that the
+ column must be null, which would surely be useless. Instead, this
+ simply selects the default behavior that the column may be null.
+ The <literal>NULL</literal> constraint is not defined in the SQL
+ standard and should not be used in portable applications. (It was
+ only added to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> to be
+ compatible with some other database systems.) Some users, however,
+ like it because it makes it easy to toggle the constraint in a
+ script file. For example, you could start with
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer NULL,
+ name text NULL,
+ price numeric NULL
+);
+</programlisting>
+ and then insert the <literal>NOT</literal> key word where desired.
+ </para>
+
+ <tip>
+ <para>
+ In most database designs the majority of columns should be marked
+ not null.
+ </para>
+ </tip>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+ <title>Unique Constraints</title>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>unique constraint</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>constraint</primary>
+ <secondary>unique</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ Unique constraints ensure that the data contained in a column or a
+ group of columns is unique with respect to all the rows in the
+ table. The syntax is
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer <emphasis>UNIQUE</emphasis>,
+ name text,
+ price numeric
+);
+</programlisting>
+ when written as a column constraint, and
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer,
+ name text,
+ price numeric,
+ <emphasis>UNIQUE (product_no)</emphasis>
+);
+</programlisting>
+ when written as a table constraint.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ If a unique constraint refers to a group of columns, the columns
+ are listed separated by commas:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE example (
+ a integer,
+ b integer,
+ c integer,
+ <emphasis>UNIQUE (a, c)</emphasis>
+);
+</programlisting>
+ This specifies that the combination of values in the indicated columns
+ is unique across the whole table, though any one of the columns
+ need not be (and ordinarily isn't) unique.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ You can assign your own name for a unique constraint, in the usual way:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer <emphasis>CONSTRAINT must_be_different</emphasis> UNIQUE,
+ name text,
+ price numeric
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>null value</primary>
+ <secondary sortas="unique constraints">with unique constraints</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ In general, a unique constraint is violated when there are two or
+ more rows in the table where the values of all of the
+ columns included in the constraint are equal.
+ However, null values are not considered equal in this
+ comparison. That means even in the presence of a
+ unique constraint it is possible to store an unlimited number of
+ rows that contain a null value in at least one of the constrained
+ columns. This behavior conforms to the SQL standard, but we have
+ heard that other SQL databases may not follow this rule. So be
+ careful when developing applications that are intended to be
+ portable.
+ </para>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2>
+ <title>Primary Keys</title>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>primary key</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>constraint</primary>
+ <secondary>primary key</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ Technically, a primary key constraint is simply a combination of a
+ unique constraint and a not-null constraint. So, the following
+ two table definitions accept the same data:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer UNIQUE NOT NULL,
+ name text,
+ price numeric
+);
+</programlisting>
+
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer <emphasis>PRIMARY KEY</emphasis>,
+ name text,
+ price numeric
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Primary keys can also constrain more than one column; the syntax
+ is similar to unique constraints:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE example (
+ a integer,
+ b integer,
+ c integer,
+ <emphasis>PRIMARY KEY (a, c)</emphasis>
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ A primary key indicates that a column or group of columns can be
+ used as a unique identifier for rows in the table. (This is a
+ direct consequence of the definition of a primary key. Note that
+ a unique constraint does not, by itself, provide a unique identifier
+ because it does not exclude null values.) This is useful both for
+ documentation purposes and for client applications. For example,
+ a GUI application that allows modifying row values probably needs
+ to know the primary key of a table to be able to identify rows
+ uniquely.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ A table can have at most one primary key (while it can have many
+ unique and not-null constraints). Relational database theory
+ dictates that every table must have a primary key. This rule is
+ not enforced by <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, but it is
+ usually best to follow it.
+ </para>
+ </sect2>
+
+ <sect2 id="ddl-constraints-fk">
+ <title>Foreign Keys</title>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>foreign key</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>constraint</primary>
+ <secondary>foreign key</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>referential integrity</primary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ A foreign key constraint specifies that the values in a column (or
+ a group of columns) must match the values appearing in some row
+ of another table.
+ We say this maintains the <firstterm>referential
+ integrity</firstterm> between two related tables.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Say you have the product table that we have used several times already:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ name text,
+ price numeric
+);
+</programlisting>
+ Let's also assume you have a table storing orders of those
+ products. We want to ensure that the orders table only contains
+ orders of products that actually exist. So we define a foreign
+ key constraint in the orders table that references the products
+ table:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE orders (
+ order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ product_no integer <emphasis>REFERENCES products (product_no)</emphasis>,
+ quantity integer
+);
+</programlisting>
+ Now it is impossible to create orders with
+ <structfield>product_no</structfield> entries that do not appear in the
+ products table.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ We say that in this situation the orders table is the
+ <firstterm>referencing</firstterm> table and the products table is
+ the <firstterm>referenced</firstterm> table. Similarly, there are
+ referencing and referenced columns.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ You can also shorten the above command to
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE orders (
+ order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ product_no integer <emphasis>REFERENCES products</emphasis>,
+ quantity integer
+);
+</programlisting>
+ because in absence of a column list the primary key of the
+ referenced table is used as the referenced column(s).
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ A foreign key can also constrain and reference a group of columns.
+ As usual, it then needs to be written in table constraint form.
+ Here is a contrived syntax example:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE t1 (
+ a integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ b integer,
+ c integer,
+ <emphasis>FOREIGN KEY (b, c) REFERENCES other_table (c1, c2)</emphasis>
+);
+</programlisting>
+ Of course, the number and type of the constrained columns need to
+ match the number and type of the referenced columns.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ You can assign your own name for a foreign key constraint,
+ in the usual way.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ A table can contain more than one foreign key constraint. This is
+ used to implement many-to-many relationships between tables. Say
+ you have tables about products and orders, but now you want to
+ allow one order to contain possibly many products (which the
+ structure above did not allow). You could use this table structure:
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ name text,
+ price numeric
+);
+
+CREATE TABLE orders (
+ order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ shipping_address text,
+ ...
+);
+
+CREATE TABLE order_items (
+ product_no integer REFERENCES products,
+ order_id integer REFERENCES orders,
+ quantity integer,
+ PRIMARY KEY (product_no, order_id)
+);
+</programlisting>
+ Notice that the primary key overlaps with the foreign keys in
+ the last table.
+ </para>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>CASCADE</primary>
+ <secondary>foreign key action</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>RESTRICT</primary>
+ <secondary>foreign key action</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ We know that the foreign keys disallow creation of orders that
+ do not relate to any products. But what if a product is removed
+ after an order is created that references it? SQL allows you to
+ handle that as well. Intuitively, we have a few options:
+ <itemizedlist spacing="compact">
+ <listitem><para>Disallow deleting a referenced product</para></listitem>
+ <listitem><para>Delete the orders as well</para></listitem>
+ <listitem><para>Something else?</para></listitem>
+ </itemizedlist>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ To illustrate this, let's implement the following policy on the
+ many-to-many relationship example above: when someone wants to
+ remove a product that is still referenced by an order (via
+ <literal>order_items</literal>), we disallow it. If someone
+ removes an order, the order items are removed as well.
+<programlisting>
+CREATE TABLE products (
+ product_no integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ name text,
+ price numeric
+);
+
+CREATE TABLE orders (
+ order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
+ shipping_address text,
+ ...
+);
+
+CREATE TABLE order_items (
+ product_no integer REFERENCES products <emphasis>ON DELETE RESTRICT</emphasis>,
+ order_id integer REFERENCES orders <emphasis>ON DELETE CASCADE</emphasis>,
+ quantity integer,
+ PRIMARY KEY (product_no, order_id)
+);
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Restricting and cascading deletes are the two most common options.
+ <literal>RESTRICT</literal> prevents deletion of a
+ referenced row. <literal>NO ACTION</literal> means that if any
+ referencing rows still exist when the constraint is checked, an error
+ is raised; this is the default behavior if you do not specify anything.
+ (The essential difference between these two choices is that
+ <literal>NO ACTION</literal> allows the check to be deferred until
+ later in the transaction, whereas <literal>RESTRICT</literal> does not.)
+ <literal>CASCADE</> specifies that when a referenced row is deleted,
+ row(s) referencing it should be automatically deleted as well.
+ There are two other options:
+ <literal>SET NULL</literal> and <literal>SET DEFAULT</literal>.
+ These cause the referencing columns to be set to nulls or default
+ values, respectively, when the referenced row is deleted.
+ Note that these do not excuse you from observing any constraints.
+ For example, if an action specifies <literal>SET DEFAULT</literal>
+ but the default value would not satisfy the foreign key, the
+ operation will fail.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Analogous to <literal>ON DELETE</literal> there is also
+ <literal>ON UPDATE</literal> which is invoked when a referenced
+ column is changed (updated). The possible actions are the same.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ More information about updating and deleting data is in <xref
+ linkend="dml">.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Finally, we should mention that a foreign key must reference
+ columns that either are a primary key or form a unique constraint.
+ If the foreign key references a unique constraint, there are some
+ additional possibilities regarding how null values are matched.
+ These are explained in the reference documentation for
+ <xref linkend="sql-createtable" endterm="sql-createtable-title">.
+ </para>
+ </sect2>
+ </sect1>
+
<sect1 id="ddl-system-columns">
<title>System Columns</title>
@@ -355,655 +1033,6 @@ DROP TABLE products;
</para>
</sect1>
- <sect1 id="ddl-default">
- <title>Default Values</title>
-
- <indexterm zone="ddl-default">
- <primary>default value</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- A column can be assigned a default value. When a new row is
- created and no values are specified for some of the columns, the
- columns will be filled with their respective default values. A
- data manipulation command can also request explicitly that a column
- be set to its default value, without having to know what that value is.
- (Details about data manipulation commands are in <xref linkend="dml">.)
- </para>
-
- <para>
- <indexterm><primary>null value</primary><secondary>default value</secondary></indexterm>
- If no default value is declared explicitly, the default value is the
- null value. This usually makes sense because a null value can
- be considered to represent unknown data.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- In a table definition, default values are listed after the column
- data type. For example:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer,
- name text,
- price numeric <emphasis>DEFAULT 9.99</emphasis>
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- The default value may be a scalar expression, which will be
- evaluated whenever the default value is inserted
- (<emphasis>not</emphasis> when the table is created). A common example
- is that a timestamp column may have a default of <literal>now()</>,
- so that it gets set to the time of row insertion. Another common
- example is generating a <quote>serial number</> for each row.
- In <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> this is typically done by
- something like
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer <emphasis>DEFAULT nextval('products_product_no_seq')</emphasis>,
- ...
-);
-</programlisting>
- where the <literal>nextval()</> function supplies successive values
- from a <firstterm>sequence object</> (see <xref
- linkend="functions-sequence">). This arrangement is sufficiently common
- that there's a special shorthand for it:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no <emphasis>SERIAL</emphasis>,
- ...
-);
-</programlisting>
- The <literal>SERIAL</> shorthand is discussed further in <xref
- linkend="datatype-serial">.
- </para>
- </sect1>
-
- <sect1 id="ddl-constraints">
- <title>Constraints</title>
-
- <indexterm zone="ddl-constraints">
- <primary>constraint</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- Data types are a way to limit the kind of data that can be stored
- in a table. For many applications, however, the constraint they
- provide is too coarse. For example, a column containing a product
- price should probably only accept positive values. But there is no
- data type that accepts only positive numbers. Another issue is
- that you might want to constrain column data with respect to other
- columns or rows. For example, in a table containing product
- information, there should only be one row for each product number.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- To that end, SQL allows you to define constraints on columns and
- tables. Constraints give you as much control over the data in your
- tables as you wish. If a user attempts to store data in a column
- that would violate a constraint, an error is raised. This applies
- even if the value came from the default value definition.
- </para>
-
- <sect2>
- <title>Check Constraints</title>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>check constraint</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>constraint</primary>
- <secondary>check</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- A check constraint is the most generic constraint type. It allows
- you to specify that the value in a certain column must satisfy an
- arbitrary expression. For instance, to require positive product
- prices, you could use:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer,
- name text,
- price numeric <emphasis>CHECK (price > 0)</emphasis>
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- As you see, the constraint definition comes after the data type,
- just like default value definitions. Default values and
- constraints can be listed in any order. A check constraint
- consists of the key word <literal>CHECK</literal> followed by an
- expression in parentheses. The check constraint expression should
- involve the column thus constrained, otherwise the constraint
- would not make too much sense.
- </para>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>constraint</primary>
- <secondary>name</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- You can also give the constraint a separate name. This clarifies
- error messages and allows you to refer to the constraint when you
- need to change it. The syntax is:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer,
- name text,
- price numeric <emphasis>CONSTRAINT positive_price</emphasis> CHECK (price > 0)
-);
-</programlisting>
- So, to specify a named constraint, use the key word
- <literal>CONSTRAINT</literal> followed by an identifier followed
- by the constraint definition.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- A check constraint can also refer to several columns. Say you
- store a regular price and a discounted price, and you want to
- ensure that the discounted price is lower than the regular price.
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer,
- name text,
- price numeric CHECK (price > 0),
- discounted_price numeric CHECK (discounted_price > 0),
- CHECK (price > discounted_price)
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- The first two constraints should look familiar. The third one
- uses a new syntax. It is not attached to a particular column,
- instead it appears as a separate item in the comma-separated
- column list. Column definitions and these constraint
- definitions can be listed in mixed order.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- We say that the first two constraints are column constraints, whereas the
- third one is a table constraint because it is written separately
- from the column definitions. Column constraints can also be
- written as table constraints, while the reverse is not necessarily
- possible. The above example could also be written as
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer,
- name text,
- price numeric,
- CHECK (price > 0),
- discounted_price numeric,
- CHECK (discounted_price > 0),
- CHECK (price > discounted_price)
-);
-</programlisting>
- or even
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer,
- name text,
- price numeric CHECK (price > 0),
- discounted_price numeric,
- CHECK (discounted_price > 0 AND price > discounted_price)
-);
-</programlisting>
- It's a matter of taste.
- </para>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>null value</primary>
- <secondary sortas="check constraints">with check constraints</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- It should be noted that a check constraint is satisfied if the
- check expression evaluates to true or the null value. Since most
- expressions will evaluate to the null value if one operand is null,
- they will not prevent null values in the constrained columns. To
- ensure that a column does not contain null values, the not-null
- constraint described in the next section can be used.
- </para>
- </sect2>
-
- <sect2>
- <title>Not-Null Constraints</title>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>not-null constraint</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>constraint</primary>
- <secondary>NOT NULL</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- A not-null constraint simply specifies that a column must not
- assume the null value. A syntax example:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer <emphasis>NOT NULL</emphasis>,
- name text <emphasis>NOT NULL</emphasis>,
- price numeric
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- A not-null constraint is always written as a column constraint. A
- not-null constraint is functionally equivalent to creating a check
- constraint <literal>CHECK (<replaceable>column_name</replaceable>
- IS NOT NULL)</literal>, but in
- <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> creating an explicit
- not-null constraint is more efficient. The drawback is that you
- cannot give explicit names to not-null constraints created that
- way.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- Of course, a column can have more than one constraint. Just write
- the constraints after one another:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer NOT NULL,
- name text NOT NULL,
- price numeric NOT NULL CHECK (price > 0)
-);
-</programlisting>
- The order doesn't matter. It does not necessarily determine in which
- order the constraints are checked.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- The <literal>NOT NULL</literal> constraint has an inverse: the
- <literal>NULL</literal> constraint. This does not mean that the
- column must be null, which would surely be useless. Instead, this
- simply defines the default behavior that the column may be null.
- The <literal>NULL</literal> constraint is not defined in the SQL
- standard and should not be used in portable applications. (It was
- only added to <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> to be
- compatible with some other database systems.) Some users, however,
- like it because it makes it easy to toggle the constraint in a
- script file. For example, you could start with
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer NULL,
- name text NULL,
- price numeric NULL
-);
-</programlisting>
- and then insert the <literal>NOT</literal> key word where desired.
- </para>
-
- <tip>
- <para>
- In most database designs the majority of columns should be marked
- not null.
- </para>
- </tip>
- </sect2>
-
- <sect2>
- <title>Unique Constraints</title>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>unique constraint</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>constraint</primary>
- <secondary>unique</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- Unique constraints ensure that the data contained in a column or a
- group of columns is unique with respect to all the rows in the
- table. The syntax is
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer <emphasis>UNIQUE</emphasis>,
- name text,
- price numeric
-);
-</programlisting>
- when written as a column constraint, and
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer,
- name text,
- price numeric,
- <emphasis>UNIQUE (product_no)</emphasis>
-);
-</programlisting>
- when written as a table constraint.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- If a unique constraint refers to a group of columns, the columns
- are listed separated by commas:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE example (
- a integer,
- b integer,
- c integer,
- <emphasis>UNIQUE (a, c)</emphasis>
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- It is also possible to assign names to unique constraints:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer <emphasis>CONSTRAINT must_be_different</emphasis> UNIQUE,
- name text,
- price numeric
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>null value</primary>
- <secondary sortas="unique constraints">with unique constraints</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- In general, a unique constraint is violated when there are two or
- more rows in the table where the values of all of the
- columns included in the constraint are equal.
- However, null values are not considered equal in this
- comparison. That means even in the presence of a
- unique constraint it is possible to store an unlimited number of
- rows that contain a null value in at least one of the constrained
- columns. This behavior conforms to the SQL standard, but we have
- heard that other SQL databases may not follow this rule. So be
- careful when developing applications that are intended to be
- portable.
- </para>
- </sect2>
-
- <sect2>
- <title>Primary Keys</title>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>primary key</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>constraint</primary>
- <secondary>primary key</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- Technically, a primary key constraint is simply a combination of a
- unique constraint and a not-null constraint. So, the following
- two table definitions accept the same data:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer UNIQUE NOT NULL,
- name text,
- price numeric
-);
-</programlisting>
-
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer <emphasis>PRIMARY KEY</emphasis>,
- name text,
- price numeric
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- Primary keys can also constrain more than one column; the syntax
- is similar to unique constraints:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE example (
- a integer,
- b integer,
- c integer,
- <emphasis>PRIMARY KEY (a, c)</emphasis>
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- A primary key indicates that a column or group of columns can be
- used as a unique identifier for rows in the table. (This is a
- direct consequence of the definition of a primary key. Note that
- a unique constraint does not, by itself, provide a unique identifier
- because it does not exclude null values.) This is useful both for
- documentation purposes and for client applications. For example,
- a GUI application that allows modifying row values probably needs
- to know the primary key of a table to be able to identify rows
- uniquely.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- A table can have at most one primary key (while it can have many
- unique and not-null constraints). Relational database theory
- dictates that every table must have a primary key. This rule is
- not enforced by <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>, but it is
- usually best to follow it.
- </para>
- </sect2>
-
- <sect2 id="ddl-constraints-fk">
- <title>Foreign Keys</title>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>foreign key</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>constraint</primary>
- <secondary>foreign key</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>referential integrity</primary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- A foreign key constraint specifies that the values in a column (or
- a group of columns) must match the values appearing in some row
- of another table.
- We say this maintains the <firstterm>referential
- integrity</firstterm> between two related tables.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- Say you have the product table that we have used several times already:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer PRIMARY KEY,
- name text,
- price numeric
-);
-</programlisting>
- Let's also assume you have a table storing orders of those
- products. We want to ensure that the orders table only contains
- orders of products that actually exist. So we define a foreign
- key constraint in the orders table that references the products
- table:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE orders (
- order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
- product_no integer <emphasis>REFERENCES products (product_no)</emphasis>,
- quantity integer
-);
-</programlisting>
- Now it is impossible to create orders with
- <structfield>product_no</structfield> entries that do not appear in the
- products table.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- We say that in this situation the orders table is the
- <firstterm>referencing</firstterm> table and the products table is
- the <firstterm>referenced</firstterm> table. Similarly, there are
- referencing and referenced columns.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- You can also shorten the above command to
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE orders (
- order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
- product_no integer REFERENCES products,
- quantity integer
-);
-</programlisting>
- because in absence of a column list the primary key of the
- referenced table is used as the referenced column(s).
- </para>
-
- <para>
- A foreign key can also constrain and reference a group of columns.
- As usual, it then needs to be written in table constraint form.
- Here is a contrived syntax example:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE t1 (
- a integer PRIMARY KEY,
- b integer,
- c integer,
- <emphasis>FOREIGN KEY (b, c) REFERENCES other_table (c1, c2)</emphasis>
-);
-</programlisting>
- Of course, the number and type of the constrained columns needs to
- match the number and type of the referenced columns.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- A table can contain more than one foreign key constraint. This is
- used to implement many-to-many relationships between tables. Say
- you have tables about products and orders, but now you want to
- allow one order to contain possibly many products (which the
- structure above did not allow). You could use this table structure:
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer PRIMARY KEY,
- name text,
- price numeric
-);
-
-CREATE TABLE orders (
- order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
- shipping_address text,
- ...
-);
-
-CREATE TABLE order_items (
- product_no integer REFERENCES products,
- order_id integer REFERENCES orders,
- quantity integer,
- PRIMARY KEY (product_no, order_id)
-);
-</programlisting>
- Note also that the primary key overlaps with the foreign keys in
- the last table.
- </para>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>CASCADE</primary>
- <secondary>foreign key action</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <indexterm>
- <primary>RESTRICT</primary>
- <secondary>foreign key action</secondary>
- </indexterm>
-
- <para>
- We know that the foreign keys disallow creation of orders that
- do not relate to any products. But what if a product is removed
- after an order is created that references it? SQL allows you to
- handle that as well. Intuitively, we have a few options:
- <itemizedlist spacing="compact">
- <listitem><para>Disallow deleting a referenced product</para></listitem>
- <listitem><para>Delete the orders as well</para></listitem>
- <listitem><para>Something else?</para></listitem>
- </itemizedlist>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- To illustrate this, let's implement the following policy on the
- many-to-many relationship example above: when someone wants to
- remove a product that is still referenced by an order (via
- <literal>order_items</literal>), we disallow it. If someone
- removes an order, the order items are removed as well.
-<programlisting>
-CREATE TABLE products (
- product_no integer PRIMARY KEY,
- name text,
- price numeric
-);
-
-CREATE TABLE orders (
- order_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
- shipping_address text,
- ...
-);
-
-CREATE TABLE order_items (
- product_no integer REFERENCES products <emphasis>ON DELETE RESTRICT</emphasis>,
- order_id integer REFERENCES orders <emphasis>ON DELETE CASCADE</emphasis>,
- quantity integer,
- PRIMARY KEY (product_no, order_id)
-);
-</programlisting>
- </para>
-
- <para>
- Restricting and cascading deletes are the two most common options.
- <literal>RESTRICT</literal> prevents deletion of a
- referenced row. <literal>NO ACTION</literal> means that if any
- referencing rows still exist when the constraint is checked, an error
- is raised; this is the default behavior if you do not specify anything.
- (The essential difference between these two choices is that
- <literal>NO ACTION</literal> allows the check to be deferred until
- later in the transaction, whereas <literal>RESTRICT</literal> does not.)
- <literal>CASCADE</> specifies that when a referenced row is deleted,
- row(s) referencing it should be automatically deleted as well.
- There are two other options:
- <literal>SET NULL</literal> and <literal>SET DEFAULT</literal>.
- These cause the referencing columns to be set to nulls or default
- values, respectively, when the referenced row is deleted.
- Note that these do not excuse you from observing any constraints.
- For example, if an action specifies <literal>SET DEFAULT</literal>
- but the default value would not satisfy the foreign key, the
- operation will fail.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- Analogous to <literal>ON DELETE</literal> there is also
- <literal>ON UPDATE</literal> which is invoked when a referenced
- column is changed (updated). The possible actions are the same.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- More information about updating and deleting data is in <xref
- linkend="dml">.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- Finally, we should mention that a foreign key must reference
- columns that either are a primary key or form a unique constraint.
- If the foreign key references a unique constraint, there are some
- additional possibilities regarding how null values are matched.
- These are explained in the reference documentation for
- <xref linkend="sql-createtable" endterm="sql-createtable-title">.
- </para>
- </sect2>
- </sect1>
-
<sect1 id="ddl-inherit">
<title>Inheritance</title>
@@ -1118,7 +1147,7 @@ SET SQL_Inheritance TO OFF;
<para>
In some cases you may wish to know which table a particular row
originated from. There is a system column called
- <structfield>TABLEOID</structfield> in each table which can tell you the
+ <structfield>tableoid</structfield> in each table which can tell you the
originating table:
<programlisting>
@@ -1223,13 +1252,15 @@ WHERE c.altitude > 500 and c.tableoid = p.oid;
<para>
When you create a table and you realize that you made a mistake, or
- the requirements of the application changed, then you can drop the
+ the requirements of the application change, then you can drop the
table and create it again. But this is not a convenient option if
the table is already filled with data, or if the table is
referenced by other database objects (for instance a foreign key
constraint). Therefore <productname>PostgreSQL</productname>
- provides a family of commands to make modifications on existing
- tables.
+ provides a family of commands to make modifications to existing
+ tables. Note that this is conceptually distinct from altering
+ the data contained in the table: here we are interested in altering
+ the definition, or structure, of the table.
</para>
<para>
@@ -1275,7 +1306,7 @@ WHERE c.altitude > 500 and c.tableoid = p.oid;
</indexterm>
<para>
- To add a column, use this command:
+ To add a column, use a command like this:
<programlisting>
ALTER TABLE products ADD COLUMN description text;
</programlisting>
@@ -1307,10 +1338,21 @@ ALTER TABLE products ADD COLUMN description text CHECK (description <> '')
</indexterm>
<para>
- To remove a column, use this command:
+ To remove a column, use a command like this:
<programlisting>
ALTER TABLE products DROP COLUMN description;
</programlisting>
+ Whatever data was in the column disappears. Table constraints involving
+ the column are dropped, too. However, if the column is referenced by a
+ foreign key constraint of another table,
+ <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> will not silently drop that
+ constraint. You can authorize dropping everything that depends on
+ the column by adding <literal>CASCADE</>:
+<programlisting>
+ALTER TABLE products DROP COLUMN description CASCADE;
+</programlisting>
+ See <xref linkend="ddl-depend"> for a description of the general
+ mechanism behind this.
</para>
</sect2>
@@ -1366,6 +1408,13 @@ ALTER TABLE products DROP CONSTRAINT some_name;
identifier.)
</para>
+ <para>
+ As with dropping a column, you need to add <literal>CASCADE</> if you
+ want to drop a constraint that something else depends on. An example
+ is that a foreign key constraint depends on a unique or primary key
+ constraint on the referenced column(s).
+ </para>
+
<para>
This works the same for all constraint types except not-null
constraints. To drop a not null constraint use
@@ -1398,7 +1447,7 @@ ALTER TABLE products ALTER COLUMN price SET DEFAULT 7.77;
<programlisting>
ALTER TABLE products ALTER COLUMN price DROP DEFAULT;
</programlisting>
- This is equivalent to setting the default to null.
+ This is effectively the same as setting the default to null.
As a consequence, it is not an error
to drop a default where one hadn't been defined, because the
default is implicitly the null value.
@@ -1660,6 +1709,9 @@ CREATE SCHEMA myschema;
<synopsis>
<replaceable>schema</><literal>.</><replaceable>table</>
</synopsis>
+ This works anywhere a table name is expected, including the table
+ modification commands and the data access commands discussed in
+ the following chapters.
(For brevity we will speak of tables only, but the same ideas apply
to other kinds of named objects, such as types and functions.)
</para>
@@ -1669,9 +1721,9 @@ CREATE SCHEMA myschema;
<synopsis>
<replaceable>database</><literal>.</><replaceable>schema</><literal>.</><replaceable>table</>
</synopsis>
- can be used too, but at present this is just for pro-forma compliance
- with the SQL standard. If you write a database name, it must be the
- same as the database you are connected to.
+ can be used too, but at present this is just for <foreignphrase>pro
+ forma</> compliance with the SQL standard. If you write a database name,
+ it must be the same as the database you are connected to.
</para>
<para>
@@ -1681,9 +1733,6 @@ CREATE TABLE myschema.mytable (
...
);
</programlisting>
- This works anywhere a table name is expected, including the table
- modification commands and the data access commands discussed in
- the following chapters.
</para>
<indexterm>
@@ -1844,7 +1893,7 @@ SET search_path TO myschema;
</para>
<para>
- See also <xref linkend="functions-info"> for other ways to access
+ See also <xref linkend="functions-info"> for other ways to manipulate
the schema search path.
</para>
@@ -2044,7 +2093,13 @@ REVOKE CREATE ON SCHEMA public FROM PUBLIC;
<listitem>
<para>
- Functions, operators, data types, domains
+ Functions and operators
+ </para>
+ </listitem>
+
+ <listitem>
+ <para>
+ Data types and domains
</para>
</listitem>
@@ -2120,7 +2175,7 @@ DROP TABLE products CASCADE;
<para>
According to the SQL standard, specifying either
<literal>RESTRICT</literal> or <literal>CASCADE</literal> is
- required. No database system actually implements it that way, but
+ required. No database system actually enforces that rule, but
whether the default behavior is <literal>RESTRICT</literal> or
<literal>CASCADE</literal> varies across systems.
</para>
@@ -2132,7 +2187,7 @@ DROP TABLE products CASCADE;
from <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> versions prior to 7.3
are <emphasis>not</emphasis> maintained or created during the
upgrade process. All other dependency types will be properly
- created during an upgrade.
+ created during an upgrade from a pre-7.3 database.
</para>
</note>
</sect1>